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THE ILLUSTRATP]]) HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURE: BEING A CONCISE AND POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT STYLES OF AECHITECTURE PREVAJLING IN ALL AGES AND COUNTRIES. BY JAMES FERGUSSON, M.R.I.I5.A. AUTHOR OF ' PALACES OF XINEVEH AND FERSEPOLIS RESTORED.' r-i^^'. ' i'. ' r, ' 1=^ IN TWO VOLUMES.— Vol. I. WITH 8n0 ILLIISTllATiONS ON WOOD. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1855.

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Works by the same Authoi'. ILLUSTHATIONS OF THE KOCK-CUT TEMPLES OF INDIA. \h IMatcs in 'I'inird Lilliograpliy, fulio; with an Svo. Volume of Text, Plans, &c. 2Z. 7*. 6d, Ixmdon, AVeult-, 1845. PlCTrHESQIE ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTUKE IN IIINIiUSI'AN. 24 Mutes in coluurod Litbograpb3-, with Plans, WixKlcuts, and explanatorj- Text, &c il. 4s. London, Hogarth, 1847. AN ESSAY ON THE ANCIENT TOPOGRAPHY OF JERUSALEM: witli restored I'laiis of the lemplt', and with Plans, Sections, and lietails of the Church built by Constantine the Great over the Holy S>pulclire, now knowTi as the Mos(|ue ol Omar. 16.<. or="" half="" kussia.="" london="" weale="" an="" essay="" on="" a="" proposed="" new="" system="" of="" fortificatio.="" with="" hints="" for="" its="" application="" to="" our="" national="" defences="" lis.="" ixindon="" the="" peril="" portsmouth.="" french="" flkets="" and="" english="" kkkts.="" i="" third="" editum.="" murray="" historical="" inquiry="" into="" true="" principles="" ilkauty="" in="" akt="" more="" especially="" reference="" architecture.="" royal="" ixingnians="" observations="" british="" museum="" gallkuy="" kkcouu="" office="" suggestions="" their="" improvement.="" palaces="" nineveh="" persepolis="" restored="" l-xsiiy="" ancii="" assyrian="" persian="" uimmn="" :="" riunteu="" by="" wilxjam="" cixtwrs="" sons="" stamix="">RI> 8TKKET, A>'1> ClIARIXG CUU3S.

PREFACE. There are few branches of artistic or scientific research Avhich have made such rapid and satisfactory progress duiing the last fifty years as those which serve to illustrate and elucidate the arts and architecture of bygone ages. Not only has an immense mass of new materials been collected, but new principles of criticism have been evolved, and studies which in the last century" were the mere amusement of the amateur, and cultivated only as matters of taste, are now becoming objects of philosophical inquiry, and assuming a rank among the most important elements of historical research. Beyond this, which is perhaps the most generally attractive view of the matter, there is every reason to hope that the discovery now being made of the pi'inciples that guided architects in the production of their splendid works in former days, may ultimately enable us to equal, if not to sui'pass, all that has been hitherto done in architectural design. AVith these inducements, added to the inherent beauty and interest which always attach themselves more or less to the objects of architectural art, the study of it ought to be one of the most iTseful as well as one of the most attractive which can occupy the attention of the public, and no doubt would be much more extensively cultivated were it not for the difficulties attending its pursTiit. Owing to the very nature of the subject, books that treat of architecture are generally large, and from the number and size of the illustrations required are also very costly, so that an architectural / library is one of the most cumbersome as well as one of the most expensive that can be got together. But even among those who can collect it, few have the patience to study the plans, sections, and details which are indispensable for a scientific exposition of the various parts of a building; and after all, without some practical knowledge of the art of architecture, or some experience at least in plan drawing, it is almost impossible to restore a building so completely to the mind's eye, from a technical description, as to enable one who has not seen it to judge correctly of its form, and still less of its merits or its foults as a work of art. Even when the difficulties of understanding and realizing architectural language have been completely comj^uered, it b

vi rilEFACE. still requires years and years of study before the historical information scattered through hundreds of vcdumcs on the principles of design can be mastered so as to enable the student to grasp the whole subject, or understand all its bearings. Tlie object of the present work is to remedy to some extent these inconveniences, and, by supplying a succinct but popular account of all the principal buildings of the world, to condense within the compass of two small volumes the essence of the infonnation contained in the ponderous tomes composing an architectural library ; and by generalizing all the styles known, and assigning to each its relative value, to enable the reader to acquire a more complete knowledge of the subject than has hitherto been attainable without deep study. Up to the present time it has been hardly possible to accomplish this, and even now very much more information is required before it can be done satisfactorily for all styles ; but on comparing this work with any of the older productions of its class, it is easy to see hoAv much progi-ess has been made, and how much nearer we are to completeness than we ever were before. At the time when Piranesi finished his splendid ' Illustrations of Architecture ' (about the year 1783), the only styles known or thought worthy of attention were the Koman and the styles derived from it, with a daAvning suspicion of the value of Greek art. Somewhat later (in 1800), when Durand publii^hed his famous ' Parallcle,' he devoted one plate out of sixty-three to Golhic art, and half a plate sufficed for all that was then kn(nvn of Egyptian, while the Indian and many of the outlying styles were almost wholly miknown. Considerable progress had been made in 1811 when Agincourt published his celebrated work ; but even then Gothic art was looked upon as a mere barbarous decadence from purer styles, and the revival of classic art was hailed as a real renaissance of true art to which the human intellect had awakened after the long night of the dark ages. By far the most comprehensive attempt made to supply the deficiency is that of Wiebeking, in a work completed in 1831. With truly German industry, he re-engraved ever}"- drawing he could collect of architectural objects, and described them all with most laudable patience ; but from want of arrangement or of criticism, his work has little value beyond being a storehouse for future reference, and a landmark to show how much has been done even since it was completed. Several other attempts have been made to supply the deficiency complained of by such works as those of Iianiee and Batissier in France, and G wilt's ' Encyclopaedia of Architecture ' in our own country, besides articles in all our principal encyclopaedias ; but none of these have quite mot the difficulty, either from being too short or too exclusively pojiular, or honi being mixed up with other matter to which illustration of the fine art architecture is made subordinate. As these works have failed in utilising the immense mass of

PIIEFACE. vii information now availal)lo, cither from being published too early or fi-om other causes, it is believed that there is still room for another attempt, which, without being too popular, should yet be intelligible in every part to the general reader, and without attempting to be scientific, should from its comprehensiveness convey even to the professional artist a certain amount of knowledge not easily accessible to all. It can of course make no pretensions to compete with the splendid monographies of individual buildings which crowd the shelves of an architcctui-al library, nor even with the separate and detailed histories of local styles. The study of these is indispensable to a perfect acquaintance with the subject, but even this may be facilitated by a general resume of the whole. One of the first difficulties of so extensive a subject is to make such an arrangement of the different styles as shall prevent any one being described before those which preceded it in time when there was any connexion between the two, and consequently before the preliminary steps by which it attained its form have been explained and elucidated. A strictly chronological arrangement will not meet this difficulty without frequent and abrupt interruptions of the continuity of the narrative, nor will one which is purely topographical. In the following pages a combination of the two methods has been attempted ; and though it is only one of many that might be proposed, each of which would have some special merit of its own, still it seems to be the arrangement which meets to the greatest extent the real difficulties of the case. Except in one or two instances, there are no chronological inversions of any importance, nor any very marked interruption to the continuity of the narrative. The first and most important division seems both obvious and convenient. By separating all architectural objects into Christian and non-Christian (the latter might be called heathen, or pagan, if these were not generally used as terms of rc^iroach), we obtain two gTcat divisions, very nearly equal in the importance of the objects described, and very easily distinguished from one another. As the Christian styles in every instance arose out of the Pagan, which in almost all instances are the older, the Pagan of course take precedence ; and if antiquity alone were considered, the Egy]itian ought to be the first described : but in that case, after going through that style, and the Assyrian, which comes next, we naturally pass to the Greek and Eoman, and the narrative must then be interrupted to make way for the Indian, the Mexican, and other styles, which have no connexion either with those which preceded, or which folloAved in other parts of the world. To avoid this a classification of a more topographical nature has been adopted ; and commencing from tlie b2

viii PREFACE. East, all those styles which have no internal relation with those of the West are first described, snch as the Indian, Chinese, Mexican, and other similar styles. Passing from these, another group presents itself in Western Asia, almost equally independent. This style arose on the banks of the Euphrates, and spread eastward to the Indus and westward to the shores of the Mediterranean, uninfluenced, so far as we can now see, by the styles on either hand. Having in this manner got rid of thesis two great groups, the reader is at liberty to pursue without interruption the history of that great style which arose in Egypt, and which, when trans|danted into (Ireece, and mellowed bv the influence of Assvria, bloomed there into greater beauty than ever was known before, but only to perish with the civilization it represented in Imperial liome. Two great styles, the Christian and the Saracenic, spi-ungfrom the Roman, which was the gi'cat transitional style between the ancient find modern world. As the Christian was the earliest bom, and the first to die, it might seem to claim precedence ; but the Saracenic attained matunty as eaily as the age of Charlemagne, while the Gothic styles were still in their infancy. There is therefore no incongruity in treating it first and among the Pagan styles, nor any inconvenience felt from this course, as the influence of the Christian on the Saracenic style was never sufficiently important to render a previous knowledge of the former indisiK-nsable, except in the one instance of the Turkish style of Constantinople. P>ut tliis style, at present at least, is too insignificant and too little known to requir-e a change in classification to make room for it. The Christian styles are easily divided into two great groups by a line drawn from the head of the Adriatic to near the entrance of the Gulf of Finland, All to the eastward of this line belongs to the Sclavonic races and the Byzantine school of art ; all to the westward to the Teutonic and Celtic races and Gothic school. 'Iliese aie so distinct from one another, and so easily defined, that either might be taken up first, and treated independently of the other; but as the Gothic is certainly derived most directly from Kome, and is by far the most impoi-tant style of the two, it seems natural to give it the precedence, and the Byzantine, which is half a European, half an Asiatic style of art, thus assumes its proper place as a supplement to the groat Christian style of Western Europe. This is at least its true position in our present state of knowledge: further researches may entitle it to assume a higher ground. The minor divisions of these styles are so fully explained in the text, that it is needless repeating here what is much more easily understood and appreciated in its proper place in the body of the work. One great division of art still remains to be described before the subject is complete. It is that style which arose in the middle

rilEi'"x\.CE. ix of the fifteenth ccntiiiy, cxihiiinatcd Avith the rebuikling of St. Peter's ;it l\t»me, and has prevailed all over Europe during the last three centuries and a half. It is infinitely inferior to the Gothic, which preceded it, as an artistic form of art, but nearly as important from the size and splendour of the buildings in which it is employed, and fully as interesting to the philosophical student of the subject, not only for what it teaches, but because it is an index to the mind of Europe during the period in which it prevailed, and is the lesson all must study who would attempt to understand the future of the noble art of architcctuie. Although every possible care has been taken in selecting the best ■ authorities for the statements in the text of the work, as well as the subjects for illustration, still no one acquainted with the state of the literature of architecture will need to be told that in many branches the materials do not exist for a correct description of the style, and that the drawings which are available are frequently so inexact, and with scales so carelessly applied, that it is impossible at times to avoid error. The plans thi'oughout the book are on too small a scale to render any minute errors apparent, but being drawn to one scale (100 feet to 1 inch), they are quite sufficient as a means of comparison, even when not mathematically correct. They thus enable the reader to judge of the relative size of two buildings by a mere inspection of the plans, as correctly as he could by seeing the two buildings themselves, without actually measuring them in all their details. As a general rule, the sections or elevations of buildings, throughout the book, are drawn to a scale double that of the plans, or 50 feet to 1 inch ; but, owing to the great size of many of them, it has been found impossible to carry out this in all instances : where it has not been effected, the departure from the rule is always noted, either beloAv the woodcut or in the text. No lineal dimensions are quoted in the text except such as it is believed can be positively relied upon, and in all instances these are reduced to English feet. The supei-ficial measures, like the plans, are quite sufficient for comparison, though not to be relied upon as absolutely correct. One great source of uncertainty as regards them is the difficulty of knowing at times what should be included in the building referred to. Should, for instance, the Lady Chapel at Ely be considered an integral part of the Cathedral, or the Chapter-house at AN'ells ? Should the sacristies attached to Continental cathedrals be considered as part of the church ? or such semi-detached towers as the south-western one at Bourges ? What constitutes the temple at Karnac, and how much of this belongs to the Ilypostyle Hall ? These and fifty other questions occur in almost every instance, which may lead two persons to very

X PREFACE. different conclusions regarding the .superficial dimensions of a building, even witliout the cnors inherent in imperfect materials. When cither the drawing from which the woodcut is taken was without a scale, or tlie scale given could not be depended upon, " No scale" has been put under the cut to warn the reader of the fact. When the woodcut was either too large for the page, or too small to be distmct if reduced to the usual scale, a scale of feet has been added under it, to show that it is an exception to the mle. Capitals, windows, and details which are meant to illustrate forms or construction, and not particular buildings, are drawn to any scale that seemed best to express the purpose for which they are inserted ; when they are remarkable for size, or as individual examples, a scale has been added ; but this is the exception, not the rule. One object that has been steadily kept in view in this work has been to show that architecture may be efficiently illustrated by plates on a small scale, yet stifficiently clear to convey instruction to professional architects. Every pains has been taken to secure the gTcatest possible amount of accuracy, and in all instances the sources from which the woodcuts have been taken are indicated. jNIany of the illustrations are froria original drawings, and of buildings never before published. Tlie above remarks with regard to the want of information or the incompleteness of illustration hardly apply to the Pagan styles. There are very few of those which might bo classed under the head of " Non(Jhristian styles " which have not been as fully and as correctly illustrated as their importance desei-ves, though more information regarding some points would be both desirable and convenient. But very few of the Christian styles were illustrated at all at the beginning of this century, and even at this time such a country as Spain is almost a terra incognita to architects. Now, however, that people arc getting satiated with the plaster prettincsses of the Alhambra, we may hope that attention will be turned to the grander and simpler works of the Christians in that country, and that this chapter will not remain the blank it has hitherto been. The English Gothic is, ot all the Christian styles, the one which has been most fully examined and illustrated ; numberless books have been pul)lished on the subject in this country ; and, as information is obtainable in almost any form regarding it, all that is attempted here is to compare it with other similar styles, an

PREFACE. \i consecrated to Mahometan purposes ; but these difticnlties are fast disappearing, and as the subject is so interesting, and the materials so abundant, it is hoped that before long the Byzantine may be as perfectly maderstood as the Gothic styles of architecture. Even at present I know of the existence of unpublished drawings almost sufficient for this purjjose. Those made by M. Charles Texier would in themselves almost suffice, and many others exist in the portfolios of those who have visited the countiy. Many of these are kept back from the idea that their authors may find an opportunity of publishing them themselves, a few from an unwillingness that others should profit by the labours of those who made them, but far more from their authors not knowing how or when to render them available to the public. I am not without hopes that if this work attain a certain amount of circulation, those who possess drawings or information to which I have not access may be induced to lend them to me for the purpose of correcting errors or of supplying deficiencies. If this is done, there will be no difficulty in rendering a second edition of this work far more complete and more worthy of the noble subject it is intended to illustrate than it can pretend to be at present. In the mean time I have to thank my friends Messrs. Pentland, F. Penrose, Edward Falkener, and Gawen, as well as Messrs. Billings, Wilkinson, and others who have lent me either woodcuts or the materials for them, and so assisted materially in enriching the illustration of the work ; and above all I have to thank the Eev. Charles Penrose for the invaluable assistance he has afforded me in passing the work through the press. All the woodcuts executed expressly for the work were engraved by Mr, Eobert Branston, and it need hardly be remarked that they are done with his accustomed clearness and accuracy. In conclusion, it is earnestly requested that those whose superior knowledge enables them to detect errors or to supply deficiencies will kindly communicate their observations to the author, whose most earnest desire in publishing tliis work is to place in the hands of the public a book which shall be deemed worthy of that noble art to the study of whose principles he has devoted the best years of his life and the best energies of his mind.

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CON T E N T S. PART I. BOOK L— BUDDHIST AND JAINA AECIIITECTUEE. Page I Chap. I. Introductory II. Blddhist Architecture — Division of subject — Topes, Sauchi — Temples, Karli — Monasteries, Ajnnta — Ornamentation of caves 6 III. Ckvlox — Description of ruins at Anuradhapoora — Iluius at Mehentele — Great moiia-stery and sacred tree at Anm-adhapoora — Ruins of Pollonai-ua 40 IV. BruMAH — Forms of Burmese biiildings — Dagobas at Kliomadoo — Pegue — llangoon, &c. — Monastei-ies 48 Chap. Pagb V. Java — Buildings at Boro Buddor — Temples at Brambanam .. 55 VI. Thiukt and Nkpal — Moua.stery of Bouddha La— Temples in Nepal 61 VII. Transitional Styles and Concluding Remarks — Raths of Mahavellipoi-e — General Remarks on Buddbist Architecture . . . . 64 VIII. Jaina — Definition of Jainism — Temples on Mount Abu — Origin of Domes — Domes of Jains and Buddhists — Temples of Somnath — Chandravati and Sadree — Towers at Chittore 68 BOOK II.— HINDU AECHITECTURE. I. Southern Hindu — Historical notices— Form of Temples — Porches of Temples — Gateways — Pillared Halls — Temples at Seriugham, Trivalur, Tinuevelly, &c. — Kyhis at Ellora — Construction of Rockcut Temples — Modern Hindu style in the South 84II. Northern Hindu Styles — Cuttack Temples — Temples in Upper India — ilodern Temples at Biudrabun and Benares— Mixed Hindu style — Tombs — Palaces — Ghats — Bunds — Wells, &c 107 III. Casmmeer — Style of Architecture — Temples at Martund — Pandrethan — Payech, &c. .. 124 BOOK III.— AECIIITECTURE IN CHINA AND AilERICA. Palaces — Palenque I. China — General Remarks — Pagodas — Pailoos — Tombs — Domestic Architecture — Temples .. 133 II. Central America — Historical notice — Central American style — Temples — Uxmal 144 III. Peru — Historiail notice — Titicaca— Tombs— Walls of Cuzco 154 BOOK IV.— ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN ASIA. I. Assyria — Historical Periods — Palaces at Nimroud — Khorsabad — Koyunjik — B;ibylonia .. .. 161 II. Persia — Biuldings at Passargadae — General appearance of Ruins at Persepolis — I'ropylaja — Palace and Tomb of Darius — Halls of Xerxes — Susa — Fu'e Temples — Tomb of Cyrus . . . . 1»7 III. Syria— Buildings of Solomon — Second Temple at Jerusalem — Palmyra 201 IV. Asia Minor — Historical notice — Tombs at Smyrna — Doganlu — Lycian Tombs 206

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CONTENTS. xiii BOOK v.— EGYin^IAN ARCHITECTURE. Chap. Page I. E(JYPT — Introductory remarks — Dimeusions of the l'yr;unids — Pyramids of (iizeh — Saccfira — Architecture of the Pyi'amids . . . . 214 II. TiiEUAN Monarchy — Historical notice — Pillars — Temple-Palaces — Rhamession — Karnac . . . . 224 III. M0DER!T Styles — Decline of Chap. 1'agk art — Temples at Dendera — Kalabsche — Philaj — Marnmeisi — Rock-cut examples — Iixsamboul — Tombs — Labyrinths— Obelisks — Domestic architecture . . . . 236 IV. Ethiopia — Kingdom of Meroe — Pyramids — Invention of the Arch 249 BOOK VI.— GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Greece — Historical notice — Peliisgic art — Tomb of Atreus — Other remains — Hellenic Greece — History of the orders — Doric order — The Parthenon — Ionic order — Corinthian order — Caryatides—Forms of temples — Mode of lighting — Municipal architecture — Theatres 255 II. Hellenic Greece the orders -History of 262 BOOK VII.— ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. I. Etruria — Historical notice — Temples — Rock-cut Tombs — Tombs at Castel d'Asso — Tumuli 285 II. Rome — Introduction . . , . 296 III. Roman Architecture — Origin of style — The arch — Orders : Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite — Temples — The Pantheon " — Roman temples at Athens — at Baalbec 299 IV. Basilicas, Theatres, and Baths — Basilicas of Trajan and Maxentius — Provincial basilicas — Theatre at Orange — Colosseum — Provincial amj^hitheatres — Baths of Diocletian 317 V. Tkiomphal Arches, Tombs, and other Buildings — Arches at Rome ; in France — Ai'ch at Treves — Pillars of Victory — Tombs — Minerva Medica — Provincial tombs — Eastern tombs — Domestic architecture — Spalatro — Pompeii — Bridges — Aqueducts 334 BOOK VIII.— SASSANIAN ARCPIITECTURE. I. Sassanian Art — Historical notice — Palaces of Diai'bekr and Al Hadhr — Domes — Serbistan — Firouzabad — Tak Kesra Ob / BOOK IX.— SARACENIC ARCHITECTUEE. I. Introduction 376 II. Syria and Egypt — Mosques at Jerusalem — El Aksah — Mosque at Damascus — Egypt — Mosques at Cairo — Other African buildings — Mecca 383 HI. Persia — Historical notice — Imaret at Erzeroum — Mosque at Tabreez — Tomb at Sultanieh — Bazaar at Ispahan — College of Husein Shah — Palaces and other buildings 400 IV. India — Local character of style — Ghazni — Remains at Delhi — Jaunpore — Mosques at Gour — Mandoo — Mosque at Futtehpore Sicri — Mosque of Shah Jehan at Delhi — Tombs — Tombs at Agra and Old Delhi — The Taje Mehal — Great Dome at Beejapore — Palaces: of Akbar ; of Shah Jehan 412 V. Spain — Introductory I'emai-ks — Mosque at Cordoba — Palace at Zahra — Churches of Sta. Maria and Christo de la Luz at Toledo — Gu-alda at Seville — Palace of the Alcazar — The Alhiunbra — Sicily 451 VI. Turkey — Peculiarities of style — Mosque of Soliman — Mosque of Achmet — Other mosques . . . . 464

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XIV CONTENTS. PART ir.— CHRISTIAN ARCIIITECTUPvE. BOOK I.— RO:\IAKESQUE STYLE. Chap. Page I. iNTnoPiCTORY 473 II. Romanesque Style — Bi\silica.s at Ilome — Basilica of St. Peter — St. Paul's — Ba.silicas at Kavenna — Piaconza — Florence — Cathedral of Pisa — Torcello . . . . 481 III. Latek Romanesque . . . . 500 Chap. Pace IV. CinccLAR CuDRCiiK.s — Tomb of Sta. Costauza — Ch\irches at Perugia, Nocera, Raveuua, Milau . . 508 V. Romanesque Auciutecture — Tombs — Towers — Secular buildings— Romanesque Architecture in the East 517 BOOK II.— LOMBARD AND RHENISH ARCHITECTURE. I. LoMitARn Architecture — Lombardy — Historical notice — Church of San Antonio, Piacenza — Churches at Novara, Pavia, Milan, Verona — Campaniles 530 II. Switzerland — Church at Romaiu-Motier — Cathedral of Zurich — Ancient plan at St. Gall . . . . 550 III. Germany — Historical notice churches — Aix-la■ Nimegueu — Bonn .j59 — Circular Chapelle IV.— Basilicas ~ Church at Gernrode — Treves — Hildesheim — Cathedrals of Worms antl Sjjires — Churches at Cologne — Other churches and chapels 508 V. Domestic Architecture — Palaces of Wartburg — Gelnhausen — Houses — Windows 587 BOOK in.— GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. I. Division of Sulijeet — Provence — Churches at Avignon, Aries. Alet, Foutifroide, Maguelone, Vienne — Round churches — Towers — Cloistei-s 593 II. .Vquitania — Churches at Perigeux, ."^ouillac, Angouleme, Alby, Toulouse, Conques, Toura — Tombs 612 III. Anjou — Cathedral at Angera — Church at Foutevrault — Poitiera — Spires 026 IV. AuvERGNE — Church at Is-soire — Puy — Fortified church at Royat 634 V. Prankish Style — Exceptional buildings— Basse CEuvre, Beauvais — Decoration 639 VI. Normandy— Churches at Caen — Gothic vaulting — Bayeux , . 643 VII. Burgundy — Abbeys of Tournus and Cluny — Cathedral of Autun — Church of St. Menoux . . 051 VIII. Prankish Architecture — Historical notice — The pointed arch — Freemasonry — Mediaeval ai-chitects 659 IX. French Gothic Cathedrals — Paris — Chai-tres — llheims — Amiens — Other cathedi-als— Later style — St. Ouen's, Rouen . . . . 0G7 X. Gothic details — Pillars — Windows — Circular windows — liays —Vaults — Buttresses— Pinnacles —Spii-es— Decoration — Construction— Furniture of churches — Domestic architecture 095 BOOK IV.— GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN BELGIUM. I. Historical notice-Old churches — Cathcdi-al of Touruay — Antwerp — St. Jacques at Liige •18 II. Civil Architecture — Belfries — Hall at Ypi'oM — Louvaiu — Brussels — Domestic .Architecture — Holland 72s

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CONTENTS. XV BOOK v.— GOTHIC AliCIIITECTUEE IN GERMANY. Chap. Tage I. History of style — St. Gereon, Cologne ■ Churclicsat Geluhauseu Cologne Cathedral — Fribursr — Strasburpj — St. SteMarburg CllAP. pheii's, Vienna Page Nuremberg — Miihlhauseu — Erfurth . . . . 735 II. Circular Churches — Church Furniture — Civil Architecture . . 758 BOOK VI.— GOTHIC ARCHITECTUKE IN ITALY. I. Amalgamation of styles — Geographical limits — Church at Vercelli — Asti — Padua — Cathedral of Sieuna — Floi-ence — Domes — St. Petronio, Bologna — Milan Cathedral — Duomo at Ferrai-a 764 II. Circular churches — Towers at Prato and Florence — Porches — Civil buildings — ■ Town-halls — Venice — Doge's palace — Ca d'Oro — Conclusion 784 III. Naples and Apulia — Buildings in Naples, Amalfi, &c. — San Nicola, Bari — Cathedrals of Bittonto, Matera, and Trani — Churches at Brindisi — General remarks 801 IV. Sicily — Population of Sicily — The Saracens — Buildings at Palermo — Cathedral of Monreale — Cefalu — The Pointed Arch . . 808 BOOK VII.— GOTHIC STYLE IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. I. Spain — Subject imperfectly known — Peculiar arrangements — Churches at Zamora — Toro — Segovia — Pointed style — Cathedrals of Leon — Burgos — Toledo — Seville 817 II. Spain and Portugal — Church of Batalha — Cloisters — Castles — Moresco style — Towers . . . . 834 BOOK VIII.— GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. I. Saxon buildings : Norman — Canterbm-y — Other Norman Cathedrals : Early English — Salisbury — Westminster Abbey — Windows — Styles of Tracery : Edwardian Style — Wells — York — Ely — St. Stephen's Chapel — ■ Wooden roofs : Tudor style — Royal Chapels 843 II. Peculiarities of English Gothic — Vaults — Square Eastern Ends — Proportions — Sites . . 879 III. Architecture op Scotland — Affinities of Style — Early Specimens — Cathedral of Glasgow — Elgin — Melrose — Other Churches — Monasteries 892 IV. Ireland — Oratories — Round Towers — Domical Dwellings — Domestic Architecture — Decorations 915 BOOK IX.-GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN NORTHERN EUROPE. I. Scandinavia — Churches at Wisby — Bornholm — ■ Denmark — Norway — Cathedral at Trondhjem — Wooden Churches 92f II. PoMERANiA — ^Brick Architecture — Churches at Lubeck . . . . 93G III. Holland — Churches — Civil and Domestic Buildings . . . . 941 BOOK X.— BYZANTINE STYLE. I. Origin of Style — St. Sophia's — Other Churches at Constantinople — Churches in Greece — Byzantine Orders — St. Mark's, Venice II. BvzANTiNE Architecture in Asia — Chm-ches at Ancyra — 943 Hierapolis — Other churches — — Armenia — Cave Churches — Inkermann — Cathedral at Ani — Decoration — Tombs 9G5 III. Architecture of Russia — Churches at Kieff — Novogoi'od — Moscow — Towers 978 Index 993

( -^vi ) LLST OF iLLUSTlLVTlOKS. ■• ^*>^ i'S.^.^V *■ KO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ri . 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. '2U. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. .30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 30. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. L&t at Allahabad Honeysuckle ornament Cajiitjil of Lilt on the Gunduck . . Siirkh Minar, Cahiil View ol'Sanchi Tope Plan of Tope at Sanchi Section of 'i"oj)e at .Sanchi . . Stone balustrade forming the enclosure at Sanchi Tope of Amravati Tower on Giriyek Hill Tope at Bimeran Tope, .*^nlt.anpore B.^se of a Tee cut in the rock at Ajunt-i Rock-cut Tope at Ajunta . . Small model found iu the Tope at Sultanpore Section of Cave at Karli Plan of Cave at Karli, double the usual size View of Cave at Karli Section of Cave Xo. 10, Ajunta. . Lomas Kishi Cave !^at Gurbha Cave Tiger Cave, Cutt^ick Ganesa Cave Cave No. 11, at Ajunta Cave No. 2, at Ajunta Cave at Baugh Durbar Cave, Salsette Pillar in G.inesa Cave, Cuttack . . Pillar in \'ihara No. 17, at Ajunta Pillar at Ajunta Tliujiaramya Tojh' The .layat.awauarama — Ruins of PoUonarua Shocmadoo Pagoda, Peguc . . Half-jilan of Shocmadoo Pagoda. . Burmese Kioum Half plan of Temjile of Boro Buddor I'.levation and Section of Temple of Boro Buddor Section of one of the smaller domes at Boro Buddor Elevation of principal dome at Boro Buddor Small tem|)lc at Brambanam Nepalese Kosthakar Kaths, Mahavcllij«)re Temple of V'imala ."^idi, Mount Abu PART I. AGE KG. 7 44. 7 45. 7 40. 8 4710 51. 11 52. 11 53. 54. 11 55. 14 10 56. 18 57. 18 58. 59. 19 20 60. 61. 20 24 62. 63. 24 04. 25 65. 28 66. 29 67. 30 68. 32 69. 32 70. 33 33 71. 34 72. 35 73. 37 74. 38 75. 39 76. 42 77. 78. 46 79, 51 80. 51 81. 53 82. 57 83. 84. 57 85. 86. 58 87. 88. 58 89. 60 90. 62 91. 65 92. 7

[.1ST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVI 1 NO. rAOK 94. Elevixtion of Teocalli at Palenque U8 95. Plan of Tcnii>le .. ., 148 96. Elevation of Building at Chunjuju 149 97. Elevation of part of Palace at Zavi 150 98. Plan (if Palace at Zayi . . . . 150 99. Casa lie las Jlonjas, Uxmal . . .. 151 100. Interior of a Chamber, Uxmal .. 152 101. Apartment at Chichcn .. . . 15'2 102. Diagram of Mexican construction 153 103. Ruins of House of SJanco Capac, in Cuzco 15G 104. House of the Virgins of the Sun 156 105. Peruvian Tombs 157 106. Elevation of Wall of Tambos .. 158 107. Sketch Plan of Walls of Cuzco . . 158 108. View of Walls of Cuzco .. ..159 109. North-West Palace at Nimroud. . 166 110. Plan of Palace at Khorsabad .. 167 111. Restoration of Northern Angle of Palace Court, Khorsabad. . .. 169 112. Section of principal Rooms at Khorsabad 170 113. Three principal Rooms at Khorsabad 171 114. Elevation of Stylobate of Temple 172 115. Section of Stylobate of Temple .. 172 116. Terrace Wall at Khorsabad .. 173 117. Interior of a Yezidi House at Bukra, in the Sinjar 174 118. Existing Remains of Propylaa at Khorsabad 175 119. Hall of South-West Palace.. .. 176 120. Pavement Slab from the Central Palace, Koyunjik 177 121. Pavilion from the sculptures at Khorsabad 179 122. Exterior of a Palace, from a Basrelief at Koyunjik 180 123. Obelisk of Divanubara . . . . 181 124. Plan of Babylon 182 125. Restored Elevation of the Birs Nimroud 183 126. Restored Plan of the Birs Nimroud 183 127. Representation of a Temple .. 184 128. Elevation of Wall at Wurka .. 185 129. Platform at Passargadre . . . . 187 130. Elevation of ^Masonry at Passargada> 187 131. View from Top of Great Stairs at Persepolis 189 132. Stairs to Palace of Xerxes .. ..191 133. Propvla?a 192 134. Palace of Darius 192 135. Facade of Palace of Darius at Persepolis 193 136. Tombof Dariusat Naksh-i-Rustam, representing the faraile of his palace surmounted by a Talar. . 194 137. P.ilace of Xerxes 195 138. Restored plan of Great Hall of Xerxes at Persepolis 195 139. Pillar of Western Portico .. ..196 140. Pillar of Northern Portico.. .. 196 141. Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes 197 142. Kaabah at Istakr 198 NO. PAOK 143. Tomb of Cyrus 199 144. Plan of Solomon's Temple . . . . 202 145. DiagramSection ofSolomon'sHouse 202 146. Plan of Temple at Jerusalem as rebuilt by Herod 204 147. Capital of Pillar in subterranean entrance to Temple at Jerusalem 205 148. Elevation of Tumulus at Tantalais 207 149. Plan and Section of Chamber in Tumulus at Tantalais , . . . 207 150. Rock-cut Frontispiece at Doganlu 208 151. Lycian Tomb 209 152. Rock-cut Lycian Tomb . . . . 210 153. Rock-cut Lycian Tomb .. ..211 154. Rock-cut Lycian Tomb .. ..211 155. Ionic Lycian Tomb 212 156. Diagram of Pyramids . . . . 218 157. Section of King's Chamber and of Passage in Great Pyi-amid . . 219 158. Pyramid of Saccara 221 159. Sarcophagus of Mycerinus, found in Third Pyramid 222 160. Pillar at Beni Hassan 226 161. Tomb at Beni Hassan 226 162. Pillar from Beni Hassan . . , . 227 163. Pillar from Rhamession, Thebes.. 228 164. Pilliu- from Sedinga 228 165. Pillar from the Portico at Dendera 229 1G6. Caryatide Pillar from the Great Court at Wedinet-Habou . . . . 229 167. Rhamession at Thebes 230 168. Section of Palace of Thothmes III., Thebes 232 169. Plan of Hypostyle Hall at Karnac 233 170. Section of central portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnac . . . . 233 171. South Temple of Karnac .. .. 234 172. Section on A B of above . . . . 235 173. Plan of Temple at Edfou, Apollonopolis JIagna 236 174. View of Temple at Edfou . . ..237 175. Bas-relief at Tell el Amarna .. 238 176. Facade of Temple at Dendera .. 238 177. Plan of Temple at Kalabsehe .. 239 178. Section of Temple at Kalabsche.. 239 179. Viewof Temideat Philaj .. ,, 239 180. Plan of Temple at Phihc .. ,.240 181. JIammeisi at Elephantine . . . . 240 182. Plan and Section of Rock-cut 'femjile at Ipsamboul . . . . 241 183. Plan and Section of Tomb of Jlancpthah at Thebes 243 184. 185. Great Labyrinth . . . . 245 186. Pavilion at Modinct-Habou. . .. 247 187. View of Pavilion at JledinetHabou 247 188. Elevation of a House 248 189. Pyramids at Meroo 250 190. Section of Tomb near the Pyramids of Gizeh 252 191. Vaulted Drain beneath the SouthEast Palace at Nimroud . . . . 253 192. Arch of the Cloaca .Maxima, Rome 253 193. Arches in the Pyramids at ]\Ieroc 254 194. West View of the Acropolis restored 255

XVlll J.IST UF ILLUSTKATIONS. KO. PAGE 195. Section and Plan of Tomb of Atreiis at Myceiia; 257 I'JG. Base of Pillar in front of Tomb of Atreus at Mycenae 258 197. Gateway at Thoricus 259 198. Gateway at Assos 2fi0 199. Arch at Delos 2G0 200. Wall in Peloponnesus 261 201. Doorway at Missolongbi .. .. 261 202. fiatc of Lions, .Alvcena} . . . . 261 203. Plan of the Acropolis at Athens.. 262 204. Temple at -Egina restored . . , . 263 205. Ancient t'orinthian Capital . . 267 206. Pillars of Tenii)los at Delos and Corinth, and Parthenon, Athens 268 207. The Parthenon 269 208. Ionic order of Erechtheium at Athens 271 209. Order of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates '-'72 2 1 0. Order of the Tower of the Winds, Athens 273 211. Carvatide Figure from the Erechtheium 274 212. Caryatide Figure in the British iMuseum 274 213. Tclamones at Agrigentum . . . . 275 214. t^mall Temple at Khamnus . . . 276 215. Plan ofTemjile of Apollo at B;issai 276 216. Plan of Parthenon at Athens . . 276 217. Plan of Great Tcmide at Agrigentum 276 218. .'Section of the Parthenon ,. ..278 219. Part Section, part Elevation, of Great Temple at Agrigentum . . 278 220. Plan of Temple of Ceres at Eleusis 279 221. Section of Temple of Ceres at Eleusis 279 222. Plan of Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens 280 223. Plan of Erechtheinm 280 224. Section of En'chtlioium . . . . 280 225. View of Erechtheium .. .. 281 226. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 282 227. Plan of Theatre at Di-amyssus . . 283 228. Plan and Section of an Etruscan Temple 287 229. Tombs at Ca.stel d'Asso . . . . 289 2.30. Mouldings from Tombs at Castel d'Asso 290 231. Plan of HeguliiiiGaleassi Tomb . . 291 232. Sections of IJegulini (ialeaiisi Tomb 291 233. Section of a Tomb at C-cre . . 292 234. View of principal Chamber in Kegulini Galea.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX NO. PAGE 292. Toinl) at. ]\Iylnss;i 353 293. Tomb at Du.iiga 354 294-. Palace of Diocletian at Sjialati-o 356 295. Golden Gateway at Spalatro . . 357 29r>. Part of Central Arcade, and upper part of Temple, Spalatro . . 359 297. Hou.s(! of I'ansa at i'ompeii .. 361 298. Aqueduct of Segovia 364299. Aqueduct of Tarragona . . . . 364: 300. Bridge of Trajan at Alcantara, in Spain 365 301. Plan of Palace at Al Hadhr . . 369 302. Klevation of part of the Palace at Al Iladlir 370 303. Plan of Palace at Serbistan . . 372 304. Section on line A B of Palace at Serbistan 372 305. Plan of Palace at Firouzabad . . 373 306. Doorway at Firouzabad . . . . 373 307. Partof External Wall, Firouzabad 374 308. Plan of Tak Kesra at Otesiphon . . 374 309. Elevation of Great Arch of Tak Kesra at Ctesiphon 375 310. Diagrams of Arches 381 311. Plan of the Mosque el Aksah at Jcrnsalera 384 312. View in the Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem 385 313. Mosque of Amrou, Old Cairo .. 388 314. Arches in the Mosque of Amrou 388 315. Mosque of Ebn Touloun at Cairo 390 316. Window in Mosque of Ebn Touloun 391 317. Plan of Mosque and Tombs of Sultan Barkook 392 318. Section of Mosque of Barkook .. 392 319. Mosque of Sultan Hassan .. .. 393 320. Sectionof Mosque of Hassan, Cairo 394 321. Mosque of Kaitbey 396 322. Minaret at Tunis 397 323. Great Jlosque at Mecca . . . . 398 324. Imaret of Oulou Jamiat Erzeroum 402 325. Mosque at Tabrecz 403 326. View of ruined Mosque at Tabreez 403 327. Tomb at Sultanieh 404 328. Section of the Tomb of Sultan Khodabendah at Sultanieh . . 405 329. View of the Tomb at Sultanieh . . 405 330. Great Mosque at Ispahan . . . . 407 NO. 331. 332. 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338, 339. 340. 341. 342. 343. 344. 345. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 354. 355. 356. 357. 358. 359. 360. S61. 362. 363. 364. Madrissa of Sultan Huscin at Ispahan 408 Throne-room at Teheran . . . . 410 Palace at Ispahan 410 Minar at Ghazni 415 Plan of Ruins in Old Delhi . . 417 Section of part of East Colonnade at the Kootub, Old Delhi . . 418 Central Range of Arches at the Kootub 419 Minar of Kootub 420 View of Lateral Gateway of ,Iumma Mesjid, Jaunpore . . . . 422 Lall Durwaza Mosque, Jaunpore 423 Plan of Mosque at Mandoo . . . . 425 Courtyard of Gi-eat Mosque at Mandoo 426 Section of Mosque at Ahmedabad 427 Pendentive from Mosque at Old Delhi 428 Great Mosque at Delhi from the N.E 430 Pendentive in Tomb at Old Delhi 433 Tomb at Old Delhi 434 Pathan Tomb at Shepree near Gualior 435 Plan of Taje Mehal, Agra . . . . 437 Section of Taje Mehal, Agra . . 437 Plan of Tomb of Jlahomet at Beejapore 440 Section of Tomb of JIahomct at Beejapore . . . . .^ 441 Diagram illustrative of Domical Construction 442 Hall in Palace at Allahabad . . 446 Plan of Imambara at Lucknow . , 449 Mosque at Cordoba 453 Interior of Sanctuary at Coi'doba 454 Screen of the Chapel of Villa Viciosa. Mosque of Cordoba . . 455 Sta. Maria la Blanca 457 Church of St. Christo de la Luz, Toledo 458 Giralda, .Seville 459 Plan of the Alhambra, (iianada 4(il Mosque of Soliman 466 Mosque of Achmet 467 PART II. 365. 366. 367. 308. 369. 370. 371, 372, 373. Plan of the Church of San Clemente at Rome 484 Plan of the original Basilica of St. Peter at Rome 487 Basilica of St. Peter 489 Plan of Sta. !Maria ]\Iaggiore . . 490 View of Sta. ilaria Maggiorc . . 491 Section of Sta. Agnese . . . . 492 Plan of Sta. Agnese 492 Half Section, half Elevation, of the Church of San Vincenzo alle Tre Fontane 493 Church of S. ApoUinare in Classe, Ravenna 495 374. 375. 376. 377. 378. 379. 380. 381. 382. 383. Arches in Church of San ApoUinare Nuovo 495 Part of Apse in S. ApoUinare in Chisse, Ravenna 496 S. ApoUinare ad Classeni, Ravenna 496 Church at Parenzo in Istria . . 497 Plan of Church at Torcello . . 498 Apse of Basilica at Torcello .. 498 Plan of San Miniato, Florence . . 500 Section of San Miniato, near Florence 501 View of the Cathedral at Pisa . . 502 Plan of Sta. Maria, Toscanella . . 504

XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ■NO. PAGE 384. View of the Interior of Sta. Maria, Toscaiiclla 505 385. Klevation of the Exterior of Sta. Maria, Toscanella 505 386. riaii of the Tomb of Sta. Costanza, Home 509 387. Plan of San Stojihano Rotondo . . 510 388. Sti. Anjreli, reriigia 510 389. .^ti. Angcli, Perugia 510 390. Baptistery at Nocera dei Pagani 511 391. Baptistery at Nocera dei Pagani 511 392. Plan of St. Vitale, Ilavenna . . 512 393. Section of St. Vitale, Ravenna . . 513 394. Plan of S. Lorenzo at Milan . . 514 39."). Plan of Sta. Fosca, Torcello .. 516 396. Tomb of Galla Placidia, Ravenna 517 397. Plan of Tomb of Theodoric ., 518 398. Elevation of Tomb of Theodoric, Ravenna 518 399. Tower of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin 520 400. Porta Palatina, Turin . . . , 520 401. Gateway, Palazzo della Ragione, Mantua 521 402. Church at Pergamus 523 403. Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem 525 404. Interior of the Golden Gateway . . 526 405. Order of the Golden Gateway .. 527 406. Order of the Dome of the Rock . . 528 407. Plan of the Dome of the Hock at Jerusalem 528 408. Chapel at Friuli 531 409. Plan of San Antonio, Piaceiiza . . 532 410. Section of ("hurch of San Antonio at Piacenza 533 411. ."Section and Plan of Baptistery at Asti 534 412. Plan of the Cathedral at Novara 534 413. Elevation and Section of the Fa(^ade of the Cathedral at Novara 535 414. Half Section, half Elevation, of the Baptistery at Novara . . 536 415. Section of San Michele, Pavia . . 537 416. View of the Apse of San Michele, Pavia 537 417. Plan of ."^an Ambrogio, Milan . . 539 418. Atrium of San Ambrogio, Milan 540 419. Facade of the Cathedral at Piacenza 541 420. Apse of the Cathedral, Verona .. 542 421. Fa

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI NO. 48ti. 487. 488. 489. 490. 491. 49-2. 493. 494. 49.5. 49(5. 497. 498. 499. 500. 00 1. 502. 503. 504. 505. 506. 507. 508. 509. 510. 511. 512. 513. 514. 515. 511',. 517. 518. 519. .520. 521. 522. 523. 524. 525. 526. 527. 528. 529, 530, 531 532 533 534 535 536 PACK Plan of St. Front, Porigoux ,. 1)12 Part of St. Front, Perigeux .. 613 Interior of Church at Souillac . 614 Plan of Cathedral at Angouleme . 615 One B.-\y of Nave, Angouleme . . 616 Plan of Cliurch at Moisj-ac .. 616 I'lan of Cathedral at Alby . . . . 617 Plan of Church at Conques . . 618 Plan of St. Benigne, Dijon . . . . 619 Church of Charroux 620 Plan of St. Martin at Tours . . 620 St. Sernin, Toulouse 622 Church at Loui>iac 623 St. Eloi, Espalioii 623 Church at Aillas

XXll LIST UF ILLUSTRATIONS. NU, I'AOB I MO. 589. man of Cathedral at Touniay .. 720 G40. 590. ."Section of Central Portion of 641, Church at Tourn.-iy, looking South 721 591. West Front of Notre Dame de 642. Maestricht 722 592. Spires of the Chapel of St. Sang, 643. Bruges 722 644. 593. Window in Church at Viilers, near Genappe 723 645. 594. Plan of the Cathedral at Antwerp 724 595. rian of .^t. Jacques, Lidge . . . . 726 646. 596. IJelfry at Client 729 647. 597. Cloth-hall at Ypres 730 648. 598. View of Town-hall, Brussels . . 732 599. Part of the Bishop's Palace, Li^ge 733 649. 600. Section of St. Gereon, Cologne . . 736 650. 601. Plan of St. Gereon, Cologne .. 736 651. 602. East-end of Church at (ielnhausen 737 652. 603. Plan of the Church at Jlarburg. . 738 604. Section of Church at Marburg . . 738 653. 605. Plan of Church at Altenburg . . 739 606. Plan of Cathedral at Cologne . . 740 654. 607. Intended Western Ka9ade of Cathedral of Cologne 742 655. 608. View of the Church at Friburg . . 744 609. Plan of Strasburg Cathedral . . 746 656. 610. West Front of Cathedral at Stras- 657. burg 747 658. 611. Plan of Hatiibon Cathedral .. 749 612. View of the Spire of St. Stephen's, 659. Vienna 751 660. 613. Plan of Church at Xanten . . .. 753 661. 614. Maria Kiiche at Miihlhausen . . 755 662. 615. View of -Maria Kirche at Aliihlhausen 755 663. 616. St. Severus Church at Krfurth . . 756 664. 617. Anna Chapel at Heiligenstadt . . 758 665. 618. Sacraments Hausleiu at Nurem- 666. berg 759 619. Doorway of Church at Chemnitz 760 667. 620. S

LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. XXUl NO. HACK (388, Plan of Winelioster Cathedral . . 858 689. Five Sisters, York 859 600. Plan ol' Salisbury Cathedral . . 8(j0 t)91. Plan of the Abbey at Westminster 801 692. East End of Lincoln Cathedral , . 8(;;) 695. Windows, Chapter-house, York 8(i4 694. East Window, Carlisle Cathedral 864 695. South Window, Lincoln . , . . 865 696. Wolsey's Chajjel, Windsor . . . . 865 697. Plan of Wells Cathedral . . . . 866 698. Plan of York Cathedral . . . . 867 699. West Front of Peterborough Cathedral 868 700. Ground Plan, Ely Cathedral .. 869 701. Plan of Ste. Chapel le, Paris .. 870 702. Plan of St. Stephen's, Westminster 870 703. Internal Elevation of St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster ,. ..871 704. Waltham Cross 872 705. Doorway in Rochester Cathedral 873 706. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey 874 707. Hall of Palace at Eltham . . . . 875 708. Doorway, King's College Chapel 876 709. Doorway to Cloisters, Windsor . . 877 710. Roof of Choir, Oxford .. ..880 711. Diagrams of Vaulting 882 712. Roof of Cloister, Gloucester .. 882 713. Vault of St. George's Chapel, Windsor 883 714. Aisle in Henry VIl.'s Chapel, • Westminster 883 715. View of Lichfield Cathedral ,, 888 716. Window, Leuchars 893 717. Pier Arch, Jedburgh 894 718. Arches in Kelso Abbey ,, ,, 895 719. Three Bays of Cathedral at Kirkwall 896 720. North Side of the Cathedral at Kirkwall 897 721. Plan of Glasgow Cathedral, and Plan of the Crypt 898 722. View in Cryj.t of Glasgow Cathedral .' 899 723. Crypt of Cathedral at Glasgow , . 900 724. Clerestory Window, Glasgow Cathedi-al' 900 725. East End of Glasgow Cathedral 901 726. East End, Elgin Cathedral . . 902 727. South Transept, Elgin Cathedral 903 728. Ornament of Doorway, Elgin ,. 903 729. Aisle in Melrose Abbey . . , . 9i)4 730. East Window, Melrose . . . . 905 731. Chapel at Koslvn 906 732. Under Chapel, P.oslyn .. ..907 733. Ornament from Holyi-ood . . . . 908 734. Ornament from Holyrood , . . . 908 735. Interior of Porch, Dunfermline . . 909 736. Window at Dunkehl restored . . 910 737. Doorway, Linlithgow 910 738. Doorway, St. Giles's, Edinburgh 911 739. Doorway, Pluseardine Abbey , . 912 740. Window in Tower, lona , , . . 912 741. Aisle in Trinitv Church, Edinburgh .. " 913 742. Cloister, Kilconnel Abbey . . . . 916 NO. 743. 744. 745. 746. 747, 748, 749, 750. 751. 752. 753. 754, 755. 756. 757. 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765. 766. 767. 768. 769, 770. 771. 772. 773, 774, 775, 776. 777. 778. 779. 780. 781. 782. 783. 784. 785. 786. 787. 788, 789, 790, 791. 792. 793. 794, 795, 796, 797, 798. PAOB Oratory, Innlsfallen, Killarney . . 917 Cormac's Chapel, Cashel .. ,.918 Section of Chapel, Killaioe. . . . 918 St. Kevin's Kitchen, (ilendalough 919 Round Tower and Chapel, Koscrea 920 Doorway in Tower, Kildare . . 921 Doorway iu Tower, Donoughmore, Meath 922 Doorway in Tower, Antrim . . 922 Tower, Devenish 922 Tower, Kilree, Kilkenny . , , . 922 Tower, Keneith, Cork . . , , 923 Tower, Ardmore 923 Floor in Tower, Keneith , , , , 923 Doorway, Monasterboice , , . , 924 Doorway, Kilcullen, Kildare , , 924 Windows in Kovuid Towers . , 924 Window, Glendalough , , , . 924 Oratory of Gallerus 925 Tower, Jerpoint Abbey , . , , 926 House, Galway 92(5 Ballyromney Court, Cork , , , . 927 Cross at Kells 927 Plan of Church at lioeskilde , . 93U Roeskilde Domkirche 930 Plan of Cathedral of Trondhjem 932 View of Cathedral of Trondhjem 932 Plan of Church at Hitterdal . , 933 View of the Church at Hitterdal 934 Church of Urnes, Norway , , 935 Cathedral, Lubeck 937 Plan of Church of St, Mary, Lubeck 938 View of Church of St. Mary, Lubeck ', , , 939 Tower in the Koeblinger Strasse, Hanover 940 Church of Sergius and Bacchus . , 946 Section of Church of Sergius and Bacchus 946 Diagram of Byzantine arrangement 946 Diagram of Byzantine Pendentives 947 U))i)er Story and (Jround Floor Plan of Sta, Sophia , , . . 948 Section of Sta. Sophia at Constantinojile 949 Pillar in Church of St. John, Constantinople 952 Capital from Sergius and Bacchus 952 Entablature from Sergius and Bacchus 952 Lower Order of the Church of Sta. Sophia 953 Upper Order of Sta. Sophia . . 954 Church of Mone tes Koras . , , . 955 Plan of the Theotocos . . . , 956 Elevation of Church of Theotocos 956 Cathedral at Athens 959 Plan of Panagia Lycodemo . . 959 Church of I'anagia Lycodemo , . 960 Plan of Church at Misitra . , , , 900 Church at Misitra 901 Apse from Misitra 902 Plan of St, Mark's, Venice . . 903 Section of St, Mark's, Venice . . 904 St, Clement, Ancyra 966 c2

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XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. TAGF. 799. Church of St. Clement, Ancyra 9G6 800. Church at Trabala 967 8nl. (iroat Cliuich at Hiorapolis . . 967 802. Church at Hierapolis 9tJ7 803. Section of Great Church at Hicrapolis 968 804. Rock-cut Cluiroh at liikeiinann . . 969 805. View in Church Cave at Inkerinann 969 80G. Cave at Inkonnann 970 807. Section of Church at Pitzounda 970 808. View of Chunh at Pitzoumla .. 971 8U9. Plan of Church at Pitzounda .. 971 810. Plan of Church at Etchmiasdin . . 972 811. Plan of Church at Mokwi . . . . 972 812. Plan of Cathedral at Ani .. ..973 813. Section of Cathedral at Ani . . 973 814. Side Elevation of Cathedral at Ani 974 815. Section of Dome at Dighour .. 974 816. Church at Kouthais ." 975 817. Church at Bedochwinta . . . . 975 818. Window at Kouthais 975 819. I'lan of Tomb at Ani 976 NO. PACE 820. Tomb at Ani 97ti 821. Tomb at Varzahan 977 822. Church of St. Basil, Kioff . . . . 979 823. St. Irene, Kieff 979 824. Plan of Cathedral at Kieff . . . . 980 825. East End of the Church at Novogorod 981 826. Cathedral at Tchemigow . . . . 982 827. Village Church near Novogorod . 982 828. Village Church near Tzarkoe Selo 983 829. Interior of ('hurch at Kostroma . 984 830. Interior of Church near Kostroma 985 831. Doorway of the Troitza Monastery, near Moscow 986 832. Plan of the Church of the Assumption, Moscow 986 833. Plan of the Church of Blanskenoy, JIoscow 986 834. View of the Church of Vassili Blanskenoy, Moscow . . . . 987 835. Tower of Ivan Veliki, ^^loscow . . 988 836. Tower of Boris, Kremlin, Moscow 989 837. Holy Gate, Kremlin, Moscow . . 990 ERRATA. Page 332, /

INTRODUCTION. Few questions aro more frequently asked, and few have Intlierto been more difficult to answer satisfactorily, than the inquiry, " What is architecture ? " " What are tJie true principles which ought to guide us in designing or criticising architectural objects ? " Fifty years ago the answers to these questions generally were, that architecture consisted in the closest possible imitation of the foims and orders employed by the Romans ; that a church was well designed exactly in the proportion in which it resembled a heathen temple ; and a civic building was to be measured by its imitation, more or less perfect, of some palace or amphitheatre of classic times. In the beginning of this century these answers were somewhat modified by the publication of Stuart's works on Athens ; the word Grecian was substituted for Eoman in all criticisms, and the few forms that remained to us of Grecian art were repeated ad nauseam in buildings of the most heterogeneous class and character. At the present day churches have been entirely removed from the domain of classic art, and their merit is made to depend on their being correct reproductions of mediaeval designs. Museums and town-halls still adhere to classic forms, alternating between Greek and Roman : while some of our public buildings attemjit to reproduce the middle ages, and palaces and clubhoiiscs adhere to that compromise iK-tween classicality and common sense which is generally called Italian. These, it is evident, are the mere changing fashions of art. There is nothingreal or essential in this Babel of styles, and wo must go deeper below the surface to enable us to obtain a true definition of the arf or of its puiqioses. Before attempting this, it is essential to bear in mind that two wholly different systems of architecture have prevailed at different periods in the Avorld's history. The first is. that which prevailed in Eg^qit, in Greece, and in all Europe, during the middle ages, ami generally in all countries of the world down to the time of the Reformation in the 16th century, and still prevails in remote comers of the globe wherever European civilization or its influences have not yet penetrated. The oth(n- was that which was introduced with the revival of classic literature contemporaneously with the reformation of religion, and still pervades all Europe, and wherever European influence has established itself. In the first period the art of arcliitecture consisted in dcsigTiing a building so as to be most suitable and convenient for the piirposes it was wanted for, in arranging the parts so as to produce the most

xxvi INTRODUCTION. stately ami ornamental effect consistent with its uses, and ai)]ilying to it such eing tliat no sham was ever permanently successful, either in morals or in art, and no falsehood ever remained long without being found o\it, and when detected it inevitably ceases to please. It is literally impossible that we should reproduce either the circumstances or the feelings which gave rise to classical art, and made it a real thing ; and though Gothic art was a thing of our country and of our o^ti race, it belongs to a state of society so totally different from anything that now exists, that any attempt to reproduce it now must at best be a masquerade, and never can be a real or an earnest form of art. The designers of the Eglinton tournament carried the system to a pcrfectlj^ legitimate conclusion when they attempted to reproduce the costumes and warlike exercises of our ancestors ; and the pre-liaphaelite painters were as fully justified in attempting to do in jiainting what was done every day in architecture. Both attempts failed signally, because we had progressed in the arts of war and painting, and could easily detect the absurdity of

INTRODUCTION. XXVll the practices. It is in architecture alone that the false system remains, and wo do not yet perceive the impossibility of its leading to any satisfactory result. Bearing this distinction in mind, let ns try if we can come to a clearer definition of what this art really is, and in what its merits consist. Let ns suppose Diagram No. I. to represent a cotton-factor}'. A X B X C X I' ..X E Diagram No. I. a warehouse, or any very common-place utilitarian building. The fir.st division, a, is not only the most prosaic form of building, but is bad building, as no attempt is made to strengthen the parts requiring it, and no more thought is bestowed upon it than if it were a garden wall or a street pavement. The second division, b, is better: the arching of the up]')er windows binds together the weakest parts, and gives mass where it is most needed t<: resist="" the="" pressiire="" or="" thrust="" of="" rui="">l' ; and the carrying down the piers between the windows gives strength where wanted. In this stage the building belongs to civil engineering, which may be defined as the art of disposing the most suitable materials in the most economical but scientific manner to attain a given utilitarian end. In the third division, c, this is carried still farther ; the materials are better disposed than in the last example, and even without the slight amoinit of ornament applied, it is a better example of engineering. The ornament is not more than would be considered in some states of society iudispensalde for even the most utilitarian buildings. The cornice may bo said to be required to protect the wall from wet ; the consoles to support it ; and the mouldings at the springing of the arch moy be insertions required for stability. In the present day, however, even this slight amount of ornament is almost sufficient to take it out of the domain of useful art into that of architecture. The fourth division, D, is certainly within the

xxviii INTRODUCTION. limits sed as in themselves to produce a more agreeable effect; and although the height of the floors remains the same, and the amount of light introduced very nearly so, still the slight grouping of the parts is such as to produce a better class of architecture than could be done by the mere application of any amount of ornament. If it is admitted that the last division in the diagi'am is an object of architecture, which the first is not, it follows from this analysis that architecture is nothing more or less than the art of ornamental and ontameitti'd construction. Taking, for instance, the Parthenon, to illustrate this principle farther. The proportions of length to breadth, and of height to both those, are instances of carefidly-studicd ornamental constiniction ; and still more so is the arrangement of the porticos and the disposition of the peiistyle. If all the pillars were plain ^(piare piers, and all the mouldings square and flat, still the Parthenon coidd not fail, from the mere disposition of its paints, to be a pleasing and imposing building. So it is with a Gothic cathedral. The proportion of length to breadth, the prf)jection of the transepts, the difterent height of the central and side aisles, the disposition and j)roportion of the towers, are all instances of oniamental construction, and beautiful even if without ornament. Many of the older abbeys, especially those of the Cistercians, are as devoid of ornament as a modem barn ; but from the mere disposition of their ]iarts they are always pleasing, and if large, aio imposing objects of architecture. Stonehenge is an instance of onaamental construction wholly without ornament, yet it is almost as imposing an architectural object as any of the same dimensions in any part of the world. It is, however, when ornament is added to this, and that ornament is elegant in itself, and appro})riatc to the construction and to the pui-poses of the building, that the temple or the cathedral ranks among the highest objects of the art, and becomes one of the noblest works of man. Even without ornamental constiiiction. a building may, by mei'e dint of ornament, become an architectural object, though it is far more difficult to attain good architecture by this means, and in true styles it was seldom attempted. Still such a building as the to^vn-hall at Louvain, which if stripped of its ornaments woulil be little better than a factory, by richness and ap}»ropriateness of (irnament alone has become a very pleasing specimen of the art. In modern times it is too much the fawhion to attempt to produce ari-hitectural effects not only without attentling to oniamental construction, but often in defiance of and concealing the construction that exists. When this is done, the result must be bad art, but nevertheless it is architectuio, however execrable it may be. If these premises are correct, the art of the builder consists in

INTRODUCTION. xxix merely hcapins;- materials together, so as to attiiiu the desircil end in the spceilicst and readiest fashion. The art of the civil or military eug-incer consists in selecting the best and most appropriate materials for the object he has in view, and using these in the most scientific manner, so as to ensure an economical but satisfactory result. Where the engineer leaves off, the art of the architect begins. His object is to arrange the materials of the engineer, not so much with regard tt) economical as to artistic effects, and by light and shade, and f)utline, to produce a form that in itself shall be permanently beautiful. He then adds ornament, which by its meaning dcnibles the effect of the disposition he has just made, and by its elegance throws a charnx over the whole composition. Viewed in this light, it is evident that there are none of the objects which are usually delegated to the civil engineer which may not be brought witliin the pi'ovince of the architect. A bridge, an aciueduct, the embankment of a lake, or the pier of a harbour, are all as legitimate subjects for architcctui-al ornament as a temple or a palace. The}^ were all so treated by the Eomans, and in the middle ages, and are so treated up to the present day in the remote parts of India, and wherever true art prevails. It is not necessary that the engineer should know anything of architecture, though it certainly would be better in most instances if he did ; but, on the other hand, it is indispensably necessary that the architect should understand construction. Without that knowledge he cannot design ; but it would be well if, in most instances, he could delegate the mechanical part of his task to the engineer, and so restrict himself entirely to the artistic arrangement and the ornamentation of his design. This division of labour is essential to success, and was always practised where art was a reality ; and no great Avork should be undertaken without the union of the two. Perfect artistic and perfect mechanical skill can hardly be found combined in one person, but it is only by their joint assistance that a great work of architecture can be produced. A building may be said to be architectural in the proportion in which the artistic or ornamental purposes are allowed to prevail over the mechanical ; and an object of engineering, where the utilitarian exigencies of the design are allowed to prevail over the aiiistic. But it is nowhere possible to draw the line sharply between the two, nor is it desirable to do so. Architecture can never descend too low, nor need it ever bo afraid of ornamenting too mean objects ; while, on the other hand, good engineering is absolutely indispensable to a satisfactory architectural eft'ect of any class. The one is the prose, the other is the poetry of the art of building. One gi'eat cause of the confusion which has arisen in applying principles of criticism, or in defining architecture, is to be found in persons applying to the constructive art of architecture principles derived from the imitative arts of painting or sculpture, while in fact no two things could in reality be more essentially different. Neither painting nor sculpture were ever useful arts except in the most barbarous times, and by the most remote analogy. Their object

XXX INTRODUCTION. is to h'll i\ Ktovy. to reproduce an emotion, or to portray a scene or ul.jcctof nature; imd they ettVct this l)y a direct imitation, more or less correct and literal, of what actually exists, either in nature or in art. Architecture, on the t)ther hand, was originally one of the useful arts, invented to pro\nde for one of the three great wants of manfood, clothing, and shelter. The wigwam grew into a hut, the hut into a house, the house into a palace, and the palace into a tcmitle, hy well-defined and easily-traced gradations ; but it never lost the original idea of a shelter, and in its most magnificent form it is a mere amplification of the original hut, but grown so solid that it seems designed to hist for ever, and so well-proportioned and so exqnisitely oniamentod that, instead of being one of the most commonplace, it ranks with the most beautifid productions of man's hands. In none of its stages is imitation an element of composition ; no true building ever w;i.s designed to look like anything in either the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms. In all instances it is essentially a creation of man's mind, and designed to subserve some practical pui-pose which he has in view. A building can tell no story, and it is only by inference that it can be made to express an emotion. It is true that painting and sculittnre may bo added to a building to any extent, and a really perfect building is never without these adjiuicts ; but they are not, or at least never should be, essentials, and the building should be always complete without them. All our cathedrals were so adorned in the middle ages, and in almost all instances this omament has been swept away. Still the buildings remain complete in themselves as works of architectm-e, though as grand artistic compositions their value was no doubt doubled by the association : but this does not justify us in judging of the canvas by the same niles that we would jutige of the picture that may be paint(!d upon it, or of the marble by the figure that may be cai-ved out of it. The fact is that architecture is in its origin as essentially a useful art as weaving or shipbuilding, but almost alone of all her sister-arts it is the one that has, from various concurrent circmnstances, been refin.-d into a fine art. When insj.ired with so lofty an aim as that of proviiling a house or temple wortliy of the Deity, it became one of the noblest and most beautiful of man's creations, but still essentially of human design in all its parts, and never striving to imitate nature, except in coi)yiiig, avS far as man's finite intelligence can do, those perfect princi]tles uf design which pervade every natiiral production, to be f-mnd wherever man's knowledge extends throughout the whole universe of God. The most convenient jdace for cxitlaining the principles of architectin-e is when descriliing and criticising the various buildings which form the subject of the body of the work ; but it may materially assist the reader to judge of the various styles and specimens of architecture di-sf-ribi'd in tii(> following pages, if the leading principles and elements of th(! art are collected and i-iiunierat(Ml as brielly as can be done consistently with cleaniess.

INTRODUCTION. xxxi II.— Mass. 1'he first and most obvious element of architectural grandeur is size -a lartz;o edifico being always more imposing than a small on^ ; and when tlie art displayed in two buiklings is equal, their ctt'eet is almost in the direct ratio of their dimensions. In other words, if one temple or church is twice or three times as large as anotlier, it is twice or three tunes as grand or as effective. The Temple of Theseus differs very little, except in dimensions, from the Parthenon, and, except in that respect, hardly dift'cred at all from the Temple of Jupiter at Elis, but because of its smaller size it must rank lower than the gi'eater examples. In our own country many of our smaller abbeys or parish churches display as great beauty of design or detail as oiir noblest cathedrals, but, from their dimensions alone, they are insignificant in comparison, and the traveller passes them b}', while he stands awestruck before the portals or Tinder the vault of the larger edifices. The pyramids of Egypt, the topes of the Buddhists, the mounds of the Etruscans, depend almost wholly for their etiect on their dimensions. The Romans understood to perfection the value of this element, and used it in its most unsophisticated simplicity to obtain the effect they desired. In the middle ages the architects not only aspired to the erection of colossal edifices, but they learnt how they might gieatly increase the apparent dimensions of a building liy a scientific disposition of the parts and a skilful arrangement of ornament, making it look very much larger than it really was. It is in fact the most obvious, though it must be confessed perhaps the vidgarest, means of obtaining architectural grandeur, and it is also the most certain ; but a tnie and perfect example can never be produced by dependence on this alone, and it is only when combined with beauty of proportion and elegance of ornament that perfect architecture is produced. III. — Stability. Next to size the most important element is stability. By this is meant, not merely the strength requiied to support the roof or to resist the various tln^usts and pressures, but that excess of strength over mere mechanical lequirement which is necessary thoroughly to satisfy the mind, and to give to the building a moniunental character, and an appearance as if it could resist the sliocks of time or the violence of man for ages yet to come. No people understood the value of this so well as the Egyptians. The form of the PjTamids is designed wholly Avith reference to stability, and even the Ilypostyle Hall at Karnac excites admiration far more by its eternity and strength than by any other element of design. All utilitarian exigencies and many other obvious means of effect are sacrificed to this, and with such success that after 8000 years still enough remains for the admiration which even the most unpoetical spectators cannot withhold from its beaiities.

xxxii INTRODUCTION. In a more refined tstylo much of the bc^auty of the Parthenon arises from tin's cause. The area of each of the jiiHars of the Pantheon at Kome is umU-r 20 ft., that of those of the Parthenon is over 33 ft., and, considering how much ta,ller the former are than the latter, it may be said that the pillars at Athens are twice as massive as those of the Roman temple, yet the latter have sufficed not only for mechanical, but for many points of artistic stability; but the streii

INTRODUCTION. xxxiii Liko all the more obvious means of arcliitcctural effect, the Egyptiaii.s seized on this and carried it to its utmost legitimate extent. All their buildings, as well as their colossi and obelisks, owe much of their grandeur to the largeness of the materials emplo^'cd in their construction. The works called Cyclopean found in Italy and Greece have no other element of grandeur than the size of the stones or rather masses of rock which the builders of that age wei'e in the habit of using. In Jenisalem nothing was so much insisted upon by the old writers, or is so much admired noAv, as the largeness of the stones employed in the building of the Temple and its sTibsti-uctions. We can well believe how much value was attached to this when we find that in the neighbouring city of Baalbec stones were used of between GO and 70 ft. in length, weighing as much as the tubes of the Britannia Bridge, for the mere coping of a terrace wall. Even in a more refined style of architecture, a pillar, the shaft of which is of a single stone, or a lintel or architrave of one block, is always a grander and more beautiful object than if composed of a niimber of smaller parts. It is easy to see that this arises from the same feeling to which massiveness and stability address themselves. It is the expression of giant power and the apparent eternity of duration which they convej' ; and in whatever form that may be presented to the human mind, it always produces a sentiment tending towards sublimity, which is the highest efi"ect at which architecture or any other art can aim. The Gothic architects ignored this element of grandeur altogether, and sought to replace it by the display of constructive skill in the emplojnnent of the smaller materials they used, but it is extremely questionable whether in so doing they did not miss one of the most obvious and most important elements of architectural design. Besides this there is another element in the mere material which is a cause of architectural efiect ; it is that of value, though it is by no means so easy to point out why this should be the case. Still we all admire an ornament of pure gold more than one that is only silver gilt, though few can detect the difference. Persons -will travel hundreds of miles to see a great diamond or wonderful pearl, who would not go as many yards to see paste models of them, though if the two were laid together on the table very few indeed could distinguish which was the real, which the coimterfeit. From something of the same feeling we admire a marble building more than one of stone, though the colour of the latter may be really more beautiful and the mateiial at least as durable. In the same manner a stone edifice is preferred to one of brick, and brick to wood and plaster ; but even these conditions may be reversed by the mere question of value. If a brick and a stone edifice stand close together, the design of both being equally appropriate to the material cmployed, but if the bricks are so beautifully moulded, or made of such precious clay, or so carefully laid, that the brick edifice cost twice as much as the other, our judgment would be turned, and we slicmld look with more respect and admiration on the artificial tliau on the

xxxiv LNTltUDUCTlON. natural inuteiial. From the same reason many elaborately carved wootleu builtlings, notwithstanding the smallness of their parts and their jierishable nature, are more to be admired than larger and more monumfutal buildings, and this merely in consequence of the evidence of labour and consequent cost that have been bestowed upon them. Irrespective of these considerations, many building materials are invaluable from their own intrinsic merits. Granite is one of the best known from its hardness and durability, marble from the exquisite polish it takes, and also for its colour, which for internal decoration is a property that can hardly be over-estimated. Stone is valuable on account of the largeness of the blocks that can be obtained, and because it easily receives a polish sufficient for external jnnjioses. Bricks are excellent for their cheapness and the facility with A\hich they can bo used, and they may also be moulded into forms of great elegance, but sublimity is nearly inqiossible in brickwork, mthout at least such dimensions as have rarely been attained by man ; the smallness of the material is such a manifest incongruity with the largeness of the parts, that even the Ivomans could not overcome the difficulty. Plaster is another artificial material. Except in monumental elections it is superior to stone for internal purposes, and always better than brick from the uniformity and smoothness of its surface, the focility with wliich it is moulded, and its capability of receiving painted or other decorations to any extent. Wood should only be used externally on the smallest and least moinunental class of buiklings, and even internally is generally inferior to plaster. It is dark in colour, liable to warp and split, and combustible, which are all serious objections to its ixse, except for flooring, doors, and such puii^oses as it is now generally applied to. Cast iron is another material rarely brought into use, though more precious than any of those above enumerated, and possessing more strength, though probably less durability. Where lightness combined with strength is required, it is invaluable, and may be moulded into any form of beauty that may be designed, but it has hardly yet ever been us»'d so as to allow its architectinal qualities to be appreciated. All these materials are nearly etpially good when used honestly Oiic-h for the i)uipose for which it is best adapted ; they all become btul either when used for a pui-jiose for which they are not appropriate, or wlien one material is used either in the place of or to imitate another. Grandeur and sublimity can only be reached by the more durable and more massive class of matciials, but beauty and elegance are attainable in all, and the range of architectural design is so extensive that it is absurd to limit it to one class either of natural or of aitificial mateiials, or to attempt to proscril)e the use of some, and t

INTRODUCTION. xxxv V. — Construction. ( 'unstructiou lias been sbo^\^l to be tbo chief aim and object of the engineer; with him it is all in all, and to construct scientifically and at the same time economically is the beginning and end of his endeavours. It is far otheiwiso with the architect. Construction ought to be bis handmaid, xiseful to assist him in carrying out his design, but never his mistress, controlling him as to the mode of executing what he would otherwise think expedient. An architect ought always to allow himself such a margin of strength that he may disregard or play with his construction, and in nine cases out of ten the money spent in obtaining this solidity Avill be more efiective architecturally than twice the amount expended on ornament, however elegant or appropriate that may be. So convinced were the Egyptians and Greeks of this principle that they never used any other constnictive expedient than a perpendicular wall or prop, supporting a horizontal beam, and half the satisfactory effect of their buildings arises from their adhering to this simple though expensive mode of construction. They were perfectly ac([uaiuted with the use of the arch and its properties, but they knew that its employment would introduce complexity and confusion into their designs, and therefore they wisely rejNicted it. Even to the present day the Hindus refuse to use the arch, though it has long been employed in their country by the Mahometans. As they quaintly express it, " An arch never sleeps," and it is true that by its thrust and pressure it is always tending to tear a building to pieces ; in spite of all counterpoises, whenever the smallest damage is done, it hastens the ruin of a building, which, if more simply constructed, might last for ages. The Romans were the first who introduced a more complicated style. They wanted larger and more complex buildings than had been before required, and they also employed brick to a great extent even in their temples and most monumental buildings. They obtained both space and variety by these means, with comparatively little trouble or expense ; but we miss in all their works that repose and harmony which is the great charm that pervades the buildings of their predecessors. The Gothic architects went even beyond the Romans in this respect. They prided themselves on their constructive skill, and paraded it on all occasions, and often to an extent very destructive of true architectural design. The lower story of a French cathedral is generally very satisfactory ; the walls are thick and solid, and the buttresses, when not choked up with chapels, just sufficient for shadoAv and relief; but the architects of that country were seized with a mania for clerestories of gigantic height, and which should appear internally mere walls of painted glass divided by mullions. This could only be elfected either by encumbering the floor of the church with pieis of inconvenient thickness lU' by a system of buttressing outside. The

xxxvi INTRODUCTION. latter Wiis the expedient adopted; but notwithstanding the ingenuity with wliieh it was caiTied out, and the elegance of many of the foinis and uvnanients used, it was singularly destructive of true architectural effect. It not only pioduces C(jnfusion of outline and a total want of rei)o.se, but it is eminently suggestive of weakness, and one cannot help feeling that if one of these props were removed, the whole would tumble down like a house of cards. This was hardly ever the case in England : tJie less ambitious dimensions employed in this coimtry enabled the architects to dis]»(!nse in a great measure with these adjmicts, and when flying buttresses are used, they look more as if employed to suggest the idea of perfect security than as necessary to stability. Owing to this cause the French never were able to construct a satisfactory A^ault in consequence of the weakness of their supports; they were forced to stilt, twist, and dome their vaults to a most unpleasing extent, and to attend to constinictive instead of artistic necessities, ^\'ith the English architects this never was the case ; they always Avere able to design their vaults in such forms as they thought would be most beautiful artistically, and, owing to the greater solidity of their supports, to carry them out as designed.' It was left for the Germans to cany this system to its acme of absurdity. Half the merit of the old Kound arched Gothic cathedrals on the lihine consists in their solidity and the repose they disjilay in every part. Their walls and other essential constructions are always in themselves sufficient to support the roofs and vaults, and no constructive contrivance is seen anywhere ; Imt when the Germans adojited the pointed style, their builders — they cannot be called architects — seemed to think that the Avhole art consisted in supporting the widest possible vaults on, the thinnest possible pillars, and in constructing the tallest windows with the most attenuated mullions. The consequence is, that though their constructive skill still excites the wonder of the mason or engineer, the artist or the architect turns from the cold vaults and lean piers of their later cathedrals with a painful feeling of unsatisfied expectation, and wonders how such dimensions and such details should produce so utterly unsatis{\ictoiy a result. So many circinnstanccs require to be taken into ccmsideration that it is impossible to prescribe any general rules in such a subject as this, but the following table will explain to a certain extent the ratio of the area to the points of support in sixteen of the principal buildings of the world.* As far as it goes, it tends to ])rove that the satisfactory architectural effect of a Iniilding is nearly in the inverse ratio to the mechanical cleverness displayed in its construction. ' It may J)e suggested that the plory of a because it enabled that art to disphiy its French clerestory filled with stained glass charms with so much brilliancy, made up for all these defects, and it may be * The numbers in the (able must be taken true that it did so; but in that case the archi- only as apjiroximative, except the last four, tectiire w.u< sncririeeaiiiting, nu

INTRODUCTION. XXXVll Area. Solids. Halio in Decimals. Nearest Vulgar Fractions. HypoGtylc Hall, Karnac . Feet. 94,437 Feet. 46,538 •496 One-half. Spires Catliedral . 56,737 12,076 •216 One-fifth. Bourges Catliedral 61,500 11,091 •181 One-sixth. Parthenon, Athens 23,140 4,430 •148 One-seventh. Chartres Cathedral 68,261 8,886 •130 One-eighth. Salisbury Cathedral 55,853 7,012 • 1 25 One-eiglith. Paris, Notre Dame 64,108 7,852 •122 One-eighth. Cologne Cathedral . 81,464 9,554 •117 One-ninth. Milan Cathedral 108,277 11,6(11 • 107 One-tenth. York Cathedral . . . 72,860 7,376 •101 One-tenth. St. Ouen, Kouen 47,107 4,037 •097 One-tenth. Temple of Peace 68,000 6,928 •101 One- tenth. St. Peter's, Rome . 227,000 59,308 •261 One-fourth. Sta. Maria, Florence . 84,802 17,056 •201 One-fifth. St. Paul's, London 84,311 14,311 •171 One-sixth. Ste. Genevieve, Paris . 60,287 9,269 •154 Ono-si.\th. At the head of the list stands the Hypostyle Hall, and next to it practically is the I'arthenon, which being the only wooden-roofed building in the list, its ratio of support in proportion to the work required is nearly as great as that of the temple at Karnac. Spires only wants better details to be one of the grandest edifices in Europe, and liourges, Paris, Chartres, and Salisbury are among the most t-atisfactory Gothic cathedrals we possess. St. Ouen, notwithstanding all its beauty of detail and design, fails in this one point, and is certainly deficient in solidity. Cologne and Milan would bt)th be very much improved by greater massiveness ; at York the lightness of the supports is carried so far that it never can be comi)leted with the vaidtcd roof originally designed for the nave at least ; and the Temple of Peace is so clever a piece of engineering, that it must always have been a failure as an architectural design. The last four buildings have quite sufficient strength fur architectural effect, but the value vi this is lost from concealed construction, and because the supports are generally grouped into a few great masses, the dimensions of which cannot be estimated by tlie eye. A Gothic architect would have divided these masses into twice or three times the number of the piers used in these chtirches, and b}" employing ornament designed to display and accentuate the construction, would have I'endered these buildings far more satisfactory than they are. In this respect the great art of the architect consists in obtaining the greatest possible amount of unencumbered space internally, consistent in the first place with the requisite amount of peiinanent mechanical stability, and next with such an appearance of superfluity of d

xxxviii INTRODUCTION. strength as shall satisfy the; iiiiml that the Liiililing is calculated t«j last for ages. VI. FOKMS. It is extremcl}' difficult to lay downi any general niles as to the fdi-nishost adapted to architectural purposes, as the value of a form in architecture depends wholly on the position in which it is placed, and the use to which it is applied ; and there is in consequence no prescribed form, however ugly it niay appear at present, that may not one day he found to be the very best for a given purpose, and in like manner none of those most admired which may not become absolutely oiVcnsive when used in a manner for which it is unsuited. In itself no simple fonn seems to have any inherent value of its own, and it is only by their combination one with another that they become effective. If, for instance, wo take a series of twenty or thirty figures, placing a cube at one end as the most solid of angular, and a sphere at the other as the most perfect of round shapes, it would be easy to cut off the angles of the cube in successive gradations till it became a polygon of so many sides as to be nearly curvilinear. On the other hand by modifying the sphere through all the gradations of conic sections, it might meet the other series in the centre without there being any abrupt distinction between them. Such a series might be compared to the notes of a piano. We cannot say that any of the base or treble notes is in itself more beautiful than the others. It is only by a combination of several notes that harmony is produced, and gentle or brilliant melodies by their fading into one another, or by strongly marked contrasts. So it is with forms : the square and angular are ex])ressive of strength and power; curves of softness and elegance; and beauty is produced by effective combination of the right-lined with the curvilinear.* It is always thus in nature. Iiocks and all the harder substances are rough and angular, and marked by strong contrasts and deep lines. Even among trees the oak is rugged, and its branches arc at right angles to its stem, or to one another. The lines of the willow are rounded, and flowing. The fonns of children and women are round and full, and free from violent contrasts ; those of men are abnipt, hard, and angular in proportion to the vigour and strength of their frame. In consequence of these properties, as a general rule the square parts ought always to be placed below, where strength is wanted, " and the rounded above. If, for instance, a tower is to be built, the lower story should not only be square, but should be marked by buttresses or other strong lines, and the mascmry rusticated, so as to -convey even a greater appearance of strength. Al>ove this, if the square form is still retained, it may be with more elegance and less ' There are some admirable remarks on information, and more common-sense criticism this siiVijoct ill Mr. K. L. Oarbett's ' Riuli- on the subject, than perhaps any other in our mentarj- Treatise on the Principles of Design language. ill Architecture ;' a work that contains more

INTllODUCTION. xxxix accentAiation. Tho form may then change to an octagon, that to a polygon of sixteen sides, and then be sunnounted by a circular form of ■ any sort. These conditions are not absolute, but the reverse arrangement would be manifestly absurd. A tower with a circular base and a square upper story is what almost no art could render tolerable, while the other pleases by its innate fitness without any extraordinary effort of design. On the other hand, round pillars are more pleasing as suppoi-ts for a square architrave, not so much from any inherent fitness for the purpose as from the eflfect of contrast, and flat friezes preferable to curved ones of the late Eoman styles from the same cause. The angular mouldings introduced among the circular shafts of a Gothic coupled pillar add immensely to the brilliancy of eifcct. Where everything is square and rugged, as in a Druidical trilithon, the effect may be sublime, but it cannot be elegant ; where everything is rounded, as in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, the perfection of elegance may be attained, but never sublimity. Perfection, as usual, lies between these extremes. V3I. — Proportion. The properties above enumerated may be characterised as the mechanical principles of design. Size, stability, construction, material, and many such, are elements at the command of the engineer or mason as well as the architect, and a building remarkable for these propertitvs only cannot be said to rise above the lowest grade of architectuial excellence. They are invaluable adjinicts in the hands of the true artist, but ought never to be the principal elements of design. After these, the two most important resources at the command of the architect are proportion and ornament ; the former enabling him to construct ornamentally, the latter to ornament his construction ; both require knowledge and thought, and can only be properly applied by one thoroughly imbued with the true principles of architectural design. As proportion, to be good, must be modified by every varying exigence of a design, it is of course impossible to lay down aiij general rules which shall hold good in all cases ; but a few of its principles are obvious enough, and can be defined so as to enable us to judge how far they have been successfully carried out in the various buildings enumei'ated in the following pages. To take first the simplest form of the proposition, let us suppose a room built, which shall be an exact cube — of say 20 feet each way — such a proportion must be bad and inartistic ; and besides, the height is too great for the other dimensions, apparently because it is impossible to get far enough away to embrace the whole wall at one view, or to see even the commencement of the roof without throwing the head back and looking upwards. If the height were exaggerated to .30 or 40 feet, the disproportion would be so striking, that no art (I 2

xl INTRODUCTION. could ix'iulcr it agreeable. As a general rule, a room square in plan is never pleasing. It is always better that one side should he longer than the other, so as to give a little variety to the design. Once and a half the width has often been recommended, and with every increase of length an increase of height is not oidy allowable, but indispensable. Some such rule as the following seems to meet most cases: — "The height of a room ought to be equal to half its width, plus the square root of its length." Tims a room 20 feet square ought to bo between 14 and 15 feet high; if its length be increased to 40 feet, its height must be at least 1()|; if 100, certainly not less than 20. If we ju-ocecd further, and make the height actually exceed the width, the effect is that of making it look narrow. As a general rale, and especially in all extreme cases, by adding to one dimension, we take away in appearance from the others. Thus, if we make a room 20 feet Avide, and 30 or 40 feet in height, we make it narrow; if 40 wide and 20 high, we make a low room. By increasing the length, we diminish the other two dimensions. This, however, is merely speaking of plain rooms with plain Avails, and an architect may be forced to construct rooms of all sorts of tnipleasing dimensions, but it is here that his art comes to his aid, and he must be very little of an artist if he cannot conceal, even when unable entirely to counteract, the defects of his dimensions. A room, for instance, that is a perfect cube of 20 feet may bo made to loctk as low as one only 15 feet high, by using a strongly' marked horizontal decoration, by breaking the wall into different heights, by marking strongly the horizontal proportions, and obliterating as far as possible all vertical lines. The reverse process will make a room only 10 feet high look as lofty as one of 15. Even the same paper (if of strongly marked linos), if pasted on the walls of two rooms exactly similar in dimensions, but with the lines vertical in the one case, in the other horizontal, Avill alter the apparent dimensions of them by several feet. If a room is too high, it is easy to correct this by carrying a bold cornice to the height required, and stopping there the vertical lines of the Avail, and above this coA'ing the roof, or using some device Avhich shall mark a distinction from the Avails, and the defect may become a beauty. In like manner, if a room is too long for its otlier dimensions, this is easily remedied either by breaks in the Avails Avhero these can be obtained, or by screens of cohnnns across its Avidth, or by only breaking the height of the roof. Anything which Avill divide the length into com]iartmcnts Avill effect this. ThcAvidth, if in excess, is easily remedied by dividing it, as the (i

INTllOJ) ACTION. xli \ A/ vv A No. II. internally. It is easy to increase the apparent height by strongly marked vertical lines, or to bring it down by the employment of an horizontal decoration. Tnniing, for instance, to the diagram No. I. : if the two divisions c and n were on opposite sides of a street, and not in immediate juxtaposition, it would be difticult to make any one believe that c was not taller than d, and that the windows in the latter were not fxrther apart and more squat than those in the tirst division ; and the effect might easily be increased. If the length of a building is too great, this is easily remedied by projections, or by breaking up the length into divisions. Thus, a a is a long building, but B B is a square one, or practically (owing to the perspective) less than a square in length, in any direction at right angles to the line of vision ; or, in other Avords, to a spectator at a the building would look as if shorter in the direction of B B than in that of A A, owing to the largeness and importance of the part nearest the eye. If 100 feet in length by 50 feet high is a pleasing dimension for a certain design, and it is required that the building should be 500 feet long, it is only necessary to break it into five parts, and throw three back and two forward, or the contrary, and the proportion becomes as before. The Egyptians hardly studied the science of proportion at all : the}'' gained their effects by simpler and more obvious means. The Greeks were masters in this as in everything else, but they used the resources of the art with extreme sobriety — externally at least — dreading to disturb that simplicity which is so essential to suldimity in architecture. But internally, where sublimity was not attainable with the dimensions they employed, they divided the cells of their temples into three aisles, and the height into two, by placing two ranges of colrunns one above the other. By these means they were enabled to use siich a number of small parts as to increase the apparent size most considerably, and at the same time to give greater apparent magnitude to the statue, which was the principal object for which the temple was erected. The Romans do not seem to have troubled themselves with the science of proportion ; but during the middle ages we find, from first to last, the most earnest attention paid to it. Half the beauty of the buildings of that age is owing to the suocessful results to which the architects carried their experiments. The first great invention of the Gothic arcliitccts (though of Greek origin) was that of dividing the breadth of the building into three aisles, and making the central one higher and "wider than those on each side. By this means height and length Avere obtained at the expense of width : this latter, however, is never a valuable property artistically, though it may be indispensable for the utilitarian exigences of the building. They next sought to increase still further the

XIII INTRODUCTION. r ill OF TOTAL HEIGHT Nu. 111. liuight of the central aisle by dividing its sides into three equal portions (as in woodcuts No. 490 and 507), which by contrast added very much to the effect ; but the monotony of this arrangement was soon apparent : besides, it was perceived that the side aisles were so low as not to come into direct comparison with the central nave. To remedy this they gradually increased its dimensions, and at last hit on something very like the following proportions. They made the height of the side aisle half that of the central (the width being also in the same proportion) ; the remaining portions they divided into three, making the triforium one-third, the clerestory two-thirds of the whole. Thus the three divisions are in the proportion of 1, 2, and 3, each giving vahic to the other, and the whole adding vciy cousidcrabl}' to all the apparent dimensions of the interior. It Avould have been easy to have carried the system further, and by increasing the number of the pillars longitudinall}-, and the ninnber of divisions vertically, to have added considerably to even this appearance of size ; but it would then have been at the expense of simplicity and grandeur ; and though the building might have looked larger, the beauty of the design would have been destroyed. One of the most striking exemplifications of the perfection uf the Gothic architects in this department of their art is shown in their employment of towers and spires. As a general rule, placing a tall building in juxtaposition with a low one exaggerates the height of the one and the lowncss of the other ; and as it was by no means the object of the architects to sacrifice their clmrches for their towers, it required all their art to raise noble spires without doing this. In the best designs they effected it by bold buttresses below, and the moment the tower got free of the building, by changing it to an octagon, anil cutting it up by pinnacles, and lastly by changing its form into that of a spire, using generally smaller parts than are found in the church. By these devices they prevented the sjjire from competing in any way with the church. On the contrary, a spire or group of sjiircs gave dignity and height to the wliole design, without deducting from any uf its dimensions. The city of Paris contixins an instructive exemplification of these doctrines — the facade of the cathedral of Notre Dame (exclusive oi" the upper story of the tower) and the Arc de I'Etoile being two buildings of exactly the same dimensions; yet any one who is not aware of this fact would certainly estimate the dimensions of the cathedral as at least a third, if not a half, in excess of the other. It may be said that the arch gains in sublimity and gi'andeur what it loses in ap]):iiiiit dimensions by the simplicity of its parts. The facade, thongli far from one of the l>est in France, is by no means deficient in grandeur ; and had it been as free from the trammels of tifilitarianism as the arch, might easily have been made as simple and

INTllODUCTION. xliii a« graud, witlioiit losing its apj)arent size. In tlie other case, by employing the })iiuciples wliieh tlio Gothic arcliitects elaborated witli such pains, the a})[)arent dimensions might have been increased without detracting from its solidity, and the arch rendered one of the sublimest buildings in the world. St. Peter's at Romo is an example of a total neglect of these principles. Its great nave is divided into only four bays, and the proportions and ornaments of these, borrowed generally from external architecture, are so gigantic that no one can realize the true dimensions of the church but by the study of the plan ; and it is not too niucli to assert, that had that cathedral been built in the Gothic style, during the 13th or 14th century, with the same dimensions, it would appear as if from one-third to one-half larger, and would have been the most sublime as well as the largest temple ever erected. It woidd be easy to multipl}'" examples to show to wdiat perfection the science of proporfion was carried during the existence of a true style of architecture, and how satisfactory the result is, even ujDon those who are not aware of the cause ; and on the other hand, how miserable are the failures that result either from the ignorance or neglect of its rules. Enough, it is hoped, has been said to show that not only are the apparent proportions of a building very much under the control of an architect independent of its lineal dimensions, but also that he has it in liis power so to proportion every part as to give value to all those around it, and to produce that harmony which in architecture, as well as in music or in painting, is the very essence of a true or satisfactory utterance. VIII. — Ornament. Architectural ornament is of two kinds, constructive and decorative. By the former is meant all those contrivances, such as capitals, brackets, vaulting shafts, and the like, which sei've to explain or give expression to the constniction ; by the latter, such as mouldings, frets, lV)liage, &c., which give grace and life either to the actual constructive forms, or to the constructive decoration. In mere building or engineering, the construction being all in all, it is left to tell its own tale in its own prosaic nakedness ; but in true architecture the constniction is always subordinate, antl with an excess of strength it need not show itself unless it is expedient to do so ; but even in an artistic point of view it always is expedient. The vault, for ii]stance, of a Gothic cathedral might just as easily spring from a bracket or a corbel as from a shaft, and in early experiments this was often tried ; but the eSect was unsatisfactory, and a vaulting shaft was carried down to the capital of the pillar, and afterwards to the floor : by this means the eye was satisfied, the thin reed-like shafts being sufficient to explain that the vault rested on the solid ground, and an apparent propriety and stability'" were given to the whole. These shafts not being necessary constructively, the artist could make them of any form or size he thought most proper, and conseqiiently, instead

xliv INTRODUCTION. of one he gcnorally used three small shafts tied together at vanouf:! intervals, and afterwards merely a p'onp of the most graceful moulding, so that they satisfied not only the exigencies of ornamental construction, hut became a real and essential decorative feature of the huilding. In like manner it was good architecture to use flj'ing buttresses, even where they were not essential to stability. They explained externally that the building was vaulted, and that its thrusts were abutted and stability secured. Tho mistake in their employment was where they became so essential to secui-ity, that the constnictive necessities controlled the artistic propriety of the design, and the architect was forced to employ either a greater nmnber, or buttresses of greater stiength than he would have desired had he been able to dispense with them. The architecture of the Greeks was so simple, that they recjuii-ed few artifices to explain their constiTiction ; but in their trigljiihs, their nuitides, the form of their cornices, and other devices, they took pains to explain, not only that these parts had originally been of wood, but that the temple still retained its wooden roof. Had they ever adopted a vault, they Avould have employed with it a totally different system of decoration. Having no constructive use whatever, these parts were wholly under the control of the architects, and they consequently became the beautiful things we now so much admire. "With their more complicated style the Ixomans introduced many new modes of constructive decoration. They were the first to employ vaulting shafts. In all the great halls of their Jiaths, or of their vaulted Basilicas, they applied a Corinthian pillar to the front of the pier, which really supported the vault. All these have now been removed, but without at all interfering with the stal)ility of the vault; they were mere decorative features to exjdain the construction, but indispensable for that purpose. They also suggested most of the other decorative inventions of the middle ages, but their architecture ncA'er reached beyond the stage of transition, so that it was left for the (Jothic architects freely to elaborate this mode of architectural effect, which they carried to an extent never dreamt of befoie, but to which their luiildings owe at least half the beauty they possess. The same system of course applies to dwelling-houses, and to the iiioanest oltjects of architectural art. The string-course that marks externally tho floor line of the different stories is as legitimate and indisi)ensable an ornament as a vaulting shaft, and it would also be well that the windows should be grouped so as to indicate the size of the rooms, and at least a ]>l;iin space left where a ])artition wall abuts, or better still a pilaster or buttress, or line of some .sort, ought to mark externally that feature of internal c(mstruction. The comico is as indisitenstible a termination of the wall as the caitital is of a pillar: and besides, it not only suggests an appropriate su]t]iort for the roof, but also eaves to throw the rain oft' the wall. Tin- same is true with legard to pediments or caps over windows : they .sngg

INTRODUCTION. xlv over doorways are equally obvious contrivances. Every thing, in short, which is actually constructive, or which suggests what was or may ho a constructive expedient, is a legitimate o1)ject of decoration, and affords the architect unlimited scope for the display of taste and skill, without going out of his way to seek it. The difficulty in applying ornaments borrowed from other styles is, that although they all suggest construction, it is not the con.struction of the building to which they are applied. To use Pugin's clever antithesis, "they are constructed ornament, not ornamented construction," and as such can never satisfy the mind. However beautiful in themselves, they are out of place, there is no real or apparent use for their being there ; and in an art so essentially founded on utilitarian principles and common sense as architecture is, any offence against constructive propriety is utterly intolerable. The other class of decorative ornaments are forms invented for the purpose, either mere lithic forms, or copied from the vegetable kingdom, and applied so as to give elegance or brilliancy to the constructive decoration just described. The first and most obvious of these are mere moiddings, known to architects as Scotias, Cavettos, Ogees, Toruses, EoUs, &c.^ — curves which, used in various proportions either horizontally or vertically, produce, when artistically combined, the most pleasing effect. In conjunction with these, it is usual to employ a purely conventional class of ornament, such as frets, scrolls, or those knovvTi as the bead and reel, or egg and dart mouldings ; or in Gothic ai-chitecture the billet or dog-tooth, or all the thousand and one forms that were invented during the middle ages. In certain styles of art, vegetable forms are employed even more frequently than those last described. Among these, perhaps the most beautiful and perfect ever invented was that known as the honeysuckle ornament, which the Greeks borrowed from the Ass;)Tians, but made so peculiarly their own. It has all the conventional character of a purely lithic, with all the grace of a vegetable form ; and as used with the Ionic order, is more nearly perfect than any other kno-\\Ti. The Eomans made a step further towards a more direct imitation of nature in their employment of the acanthus leaf. As applied to a capital, or where the constructive form of the bell beneath it is still distinctly seen, it is unobjectionable ; but Avhen the leaf suj)ports the volute at the angles of the abacus, it is on the very verge of good taste. With their disregard of precedent, and untrammelled wildness of imagination, the Gothic architects tried every form of vegetable ornament, from the purest conventionalism, where the vegetable form can hardly be recognised, to the most literal imitation of nature. By employing the former an architect can never sin against good taste, though he may miss many beauties ; with the latter class of ornament he is always in danger of offence, and few have ever employed it without falling into mistakes. In the first place, because it is impossible to imitate perfectly foliage and flowers in stone; and

xlvi INTRODUCTION. Hccoiidly, bccim.so if the pliant forms of jjlants are made to support, or do the work of, liard stone, the iiicongniity is immediately apparent, and the more peifeet the imitation the greater the mistake. In the instance (woodcut No. IV.), any amount of literal imitation that the sculptor thought proper may be indulged in, because in it the stone construction is so a})parent everywhere, that the vegetable form is the merest supplement conceivable ; or in a hollow moulding round a doorway, a vine may be sculptured with any degree of imitation that can be employed ; for as it has no more work to do than the object represented would have in the same situation, it is a mere adjunct, a statue of a plant placed in a niche, as we might use the statue of a man : but if in the woodcut (No. V.) imitations of real leaves were used to support the upper moulding, the effect would not be'so satisfactory; indeed it is questionable if in both these last examples a little more conventionality would not be desirable. In too many instances, even in the best Gothic architecture, the consti-uction is so overlaid by imitative vegetable forms as to be concealed, and the work is apparently done by leaves or twigs, but in the earliest and purest style this is almost never the case. As a general rule it may be asserted that the best lithic ornaments are those which approach nearest to the grace and pliancy of plants, and that the best vegetable fonns are those which most resemble the resrularity and sjTumetry of those which are purely conventional. Although the Greeks in one or two instances employed human tigures to su]iport entablatures or beams, the good taste of such an anangcment is more than (piestionablc. They bonowed it, with the Ionic order, fi'om the Assyrians, with whom the employment of caiyatides and animal forms was the imle, not the exception, in contra(lislinction from the Egyjitians, who never adopted this practice.' Kvcn the liomans avoided this mistake, and the Gothic architects also as a general i-ule kept quite clear of it. Whenever they did emi)l(iy ornamented figures for architectural pui-poses, they were cither monNo. IV. iNo. V. ' The Isis-lio;uli an exception to tliis rule: they work of the pillar.

INTIIODUCTION. xlvii jstcrs, as in gargoyles, or griftbns ; or sometimos in a spirit of caricatm-o they used dwarfs or deformities of varioiis sorts ; bnt tlieir sculpture, properly so called, was alwaj's provided with a niche or pedestal, where it might have been placed after the building was complete, or from which it might be removed without interfering with the architecture. No oinament is so essential or so important to true architecture as sculpture, whether emploj'ed as single figures, or as bas-reliefs, or on friezes ; but wherever it is introduced, it ought to be in niches or panels, or places where pains have been taken expressly to provide that the construction shall not interfere with them, and never where they seem to have anything to do either directly or indirectly with the construction. Colour is one of the most invaluable elements placed at the command of the architect to enable him to give grace or finish to his designs. From its nature it is of course only an accessory, or mere ornament ; but there is nothing that enables him to express his meaning so cheaply and easily, and at ihe same time with such brilliancy and effect. For an interior it is absolutely indispensable ; and no apartment can be said to be complete till it has received its finishing touches from the hand of the painter. Whether exteriors ought or ought not to be similarly treated admits of more doubt. Internally the architect has complete command of the situation ; he can suit his design to his colours, or his colours to his design. Walls, roof, floor, fiimiture, are all at his command, and he can shut out any discordant element that would interfere with the desired effect. Externally this is seldom if ever the case. A facade tliat looks brilliant and Avell in noonday sun may be utterly out of harmony with a cold gray sky, or with the warm glow of a setting sun full upon it ; and unless all other buildings and objects are toned into harmony with it, the effect can seldom be harmonious. There can now be no reasonable doiibt that the Greeks painted their temples both internally and externally, but as a general rule they always placed them on heights where they coidd only be seen relieved against the sky ; and they could depend on an atmosphere of uniform, unvarying brightness. Had their tem])les been placed in groves or valleys, they would probably have given up the attempt, and certainly never woxild have ventured upon it in such a climate as ours. Except in such countries as Egypt and Greece, it must always be a mistake to apply colour by merely painting the surface of the building externally ; but there are other modes of effecting this which are perfectly legitimate. Coloured ornaments may be inlaid in the stone of the wall without interfering with the constniction, and so placed be far more effective and brilliarit than the same ornaments would be if carved in relief. Again, string-courses and moiUdings of various

xlviii INTRODUCTION. coloured stones or marbles might bo employed with far better effect than can bo obtained by depth of cutting and boldness of projection. Such a mode of decoration can only be partial ; if the whole building is to be coloured, it must be done constructively, or the effect will never be satisfactoiy. In the middle ages the Italians can-ied this mode of decoration to a considerable extent ; but in almost all instances it is so evidently a veneer overlying the construction that it fails to please ; and a decoration which internally, where construction is of less importance, would excite general admiration, is without meaning on the outside of the same wall. At the same time it is easy to conceive how polychromy might l)e can-ied out successfully, if, for instance, a building were erected, the pillars of which were of red granite or poi-phpy, the cornices or stringcourses of dark colouied marbles, and the plain surfaces of lighter kinds, or even of stone. A design so carried out would be infinitely more effective than a similar one executed in materials of only one colour, and depending for relief only on varj^ng shadows of daylight. 1'here is in fact just the same difficulty in lighting monochromatic buildings as there is with sculpture. A coloured painting, on the other hand, rerpiires merely sufficient light, and with that expresses its form and meaning far more clearly and easily than when only one colour is employed. The task, however, is difficult ; so much so, indeed, that there is hardly one single instance known of a complete polychromatic design being successfully carried out anywhere, though often attempted. The other mode of merely inlaying the ornaments in colour instead of relievinsi them bv carving as seldom fi\ils. Notwithstanding this an architect ought never to neglect to select the colour of his materials ^^^th reference to the situation in which his buildiufi; is to stand. A red brick building mav look remarkablv well if nestling among green trees, while the same building would be hideous if situated on a sandy plain and relieved only by the warm glow of a setting sim. A building of white stone or white brick is as ina]»})r

INTEODUCTION. xlix iii

1 INTRODUCTION. obtained by more icgiilarit}', and the highest class of design will never be reached by these means. It is not diflicnlt to discover, at least to a certain extent, the cause of this, as no number of separate units will suffice to make one whole. A niuiibcr of pebbles will not make a great stone, nor a number of rosebuKlies an oak; nor will any number of dwarfs make up a giant. To obtiiin a great whole there must be unity, to which all the parts must contribute, or they will remain sejiarate particles. The eft'ect of unity is luaterially heiglitened when to it is added unifomiity : the mind then instantly and easily grasps the whole, and knows it to be one, perceiving the ruling idea that governed and moulded the whole together. It seems only to be by the introduction of uniformity that .sufficient simplicity for gi-catness can be obtained, and the evidence of design made so manifest that the mind is satisfied that the building is no mere accumulation of separate objects, but the production of a master mind. In a palace irregi;larity seems unpardonable. The architect has there practically unlimited command of funds and of his arrangements, and he can easily design his suites of rooms so as to produce anj^ amount of unifoniiity he may require : the different heights of the ditfeient stories and the amoimt of ornament on them, wnth the employment of wings for offices, is sufficient to mark the various purjioses of the various parts ; but where the system is carried so far in great public buildings, that great halls, libraries, committee-rooms, and subordinate residences are all squeezed into one perfectly unifonn design, the building loses all meaning, and fails from the opposite errc )r. The rule seems to be that every building or every part of one ought most distinctly and clearly to express not only its constructive exigences, but also the uses for which it is destined ; on the other hand, that mere use ought, in all instances where architectural effect is aimed at, to give way to artistic requirements ; and an architect is consequently justified, in so far as his means will admit, in producing that amount of uniformity and regularity which seems indispensable for anj'thing like grandeur of effect. In villas and ismall buildings all we look for is picturesqueness and meaning combined with elegance ; but in larger and more monumental erections we expect something more ; and this can hardly be obtained without th(' introduction of some new element which t^hall tell, in the first ]>lace, that artistic excellence was the ruling idea of the design, and in the next jilaco give it that perfect balance and synnuetry wliich seems to be as inherent a quality of the works of nature as of true art. XI. — Im^i^iox of Nature. The subject of the imitation of Nature is one intimately connected Avith those mot»ted in the preceding paragraphs, and regarding which considerable misunderstanding seems to prevail. It is generally assumed that in architecture we ought to cojiy natural objectts as we see

INTRODUCTION. li them, whereas the truth seems to be that we ought always to cojjy the processes, never the forms of Nature. 'J'he error apparently has arisen from confounding together the iniitutivc arts of painting and sculj)tu]-e with the constructive art of architecture. The former have no otlier mode of expression than by copying, more or less literally, the fonus of Nature ; the latter, as explained above, depends wholly on a different class of elements for its effect ; but at the same time no architect can either study too intently, or copy too closely, the methods and processes by which Nature accomplishes her ends ; and the most perfect building will be that in which these have been most closely and literally followed. To take one prominent instance : — So far as we can judge, the human body is the most perfect of Nature's works ; in it the groundwork or skeleton is never seen, and though it can hardly be said to be anywhere concealed, it is only displayed at the joints or more prominent points of support, where the action of the frame would be otherwise unintelligible. The muscles are disposed not only where they are most Tiseful, but so as to form groups gracefully rounded in outline. The softness and elegance of these are further aided by the deposition of adipose matter, and the whole is covered with a skin which by its beautiful texture conceals the more utilitarian construction of the internal parts. In the trunk of the body the viscera are disposed wliolly without symmetry or reference to beauty of any sort — the heart on one side, the liver on the other, and the other parts exactly in those positions and in those fonus by which they may most directly and easily perform the essential functions for which they were designed. But the whole is concealed in a perfectly symmetrical sheatli of the most exquisitely beautiful outline. It may be safely asserted that a building is beautiful and perfect exactly in the ratio in which the same amount of concealment and the same amoinit of display of consti'uction is preserved, where the same symmetry is shown as between the right and left sides of the human body — the same difference as between the legs and arms, where the parts are applied to different purposes, to adorn without interfering with what is useful, and wliere the same amount of ornament is added. In short there is no principle involved in the structure of man which may not be taken as the most absolute standard of excellence in architecture. The same is true of all other objects of Nature. If we could find Nature makingtrees like stones, or animals like trees, or birds like fishes, or fixhes like mammalia, or using any parts taken from one kingdom for puiiioses belonging to another, it would then be jjcrfectly legitimate for us to use man's stature as the modulus for a Doric, or woman's as that of an Ionic column — to build cathedrals like groves, and make windows like leaves, or to estimate their beauty by their resemblance to sucli objects ; but all such comparisons proceed on an entire mistake of what imitation of Nature really means. It is the merest and most absolute negation of reason to apply to one purpose things that were designed for another, or to imitate them when they have no appropriateness ; but it is our highest privilege to

Hi INTRODUCTION. uiulci-stand the processes of Nature. To apply these to mii- own wants and purposes is the highest stretch of human intellect and the perfection of human ■wisdom. So instinctively, but so literally, has this correct process of imitating Nature been followed in all true styles of architecture, that we can always reason regarding them as we do with regard to natural objects. Thus, if an architect finds in an}- quarter of the globe a Doric or Corinthitm capital with a few traces of a foundation, he at once can tell the age of the temple or building to which it belonged. lie knows who the people were who erected it, to what purpose it was dedicated, and proceeds at once to restore its porticos, and without much uncertainty can reproduce the whole fabric. Or if he finds a few Gothic bases in sitii, Avith a few mouldings or frusta of columns, by the same process he traces the age, the size, the pui-poi-es of the building before him. A Ciivier or an Owen can restore the form and predicate the habits of an extinct animal fi-om a few fragments of bone, or even from a print of a foot. In the same manner an architect may, from a few fragments of a building, if of a true style of architecture, restore the whole of its pristine forms, and with almost the same amount of certainty. This arises wholly because the architects of those days had correct ideas of the true meaning c>f the expression and • imitation of Nature. They added nothing to their buildings which was not essential ; there was no detail which had not its use, and no ornament which was not an elaboration or heightening of some essential part, and hence it is that a true building is as like to a work of Nature as any production of man's hands can be to the creations of his Maker. XII. — EtIIXOGRAI'HY. It is the circumstance mentioned in the last section of the pertectly truthful imitation of Nature in all true styles of art that gives such a charm to the study, and raises the elal)oration of these principles to the dignity of a science. It leads also to one further conclusion : when men expressed their knowledge so tnithfully, they expressed also their feelings, and with their feelings their nationalit}'. It is thus that, looking on an ancient building, we can not only tell in what state of civilization its builders lived, or how far they were advanced in the arts, but we can almost certainly say also to what race they belonged, and what their affinities were with the other races or tribes of mankind. So far as my knt)wkdgc extends, 1 do not know a single exce^jtion to this rule ; and, as far as I can judge, I believe that architecture is in all instances jvs correct a test of race as language, and one far more easily applied and understood. Languages alter and become mixed, and wlien a change has once been ostalilished it is extremely difficult to follow it back to its origin, and unravel the elements which compose it ; but a building once erected stands xmchanged to testify to the time when it was built, and the feelings and motives of its builders remain stamped indelibly upon it as long as it lasts. Owing to the confusion of styles which has prevailed since the

INTRODUCTION. liii Jienaissancc, this branch of the subject has been little understood or followed out; but it is the (iharacteristic which lends to the study of ancient architecture its highest value, and which, when propei'ly understood, will elevate what has been conbidcrod as a merely instructive pastime into the dignity of an important science. XIII.— New Style^ There is still one other point of view from which it is necessaiy to look at this question of architectural design before any just conclusion can be arrived at regarding it. It is in fact necessary to answer two (questions, nearly as often asked as those proposed at the beginning of this Introduction. " Can we ever again have a new and original style of architecture ?" — " Can any one invent a new style ?" Eeasoning from experience alone, it is easy to answer these questions. No individual has, so far as we know, ever invented a new style in any part of the world. No one can even be named who during the prevalence of a true style of art. materially advanced its progress, or by his individixal exertion did much to help it forward ; and we may safely answer, that as this has never happened before, it is hardly probable that it will ever occur now. If this one question must be answered in the negative, the other may as certainly be answered in the afiinnative, inasmuch as no nation in any age or in any part of the globe has failed to invent for itself a true and appropriate style of architecture whenever it chose to set about it in the right way, and there certainly can be no great difficulty in our doing now what has been so often done before, if we only set to work in a proper spirit, and are prepared to follow the same process which others have followed to obtain this result. What that process is, may perhaps be best explained by an example ; and as one of a building character, though totally distinct, let us take ship-building. Let us take a series of ships, beginning with those in which William the Conqueror invaded our shores, or the fleet with whieli Edward III. crossed over to France. Next take the vessels which transjiorted Henry VIII. to his meeting with Francis I., and then pass on to the time of the Spanish Armada, and the sea fights of Van Tromp and De Huyter, and on to the times of William III., and then through the familiar examples till we come to such ships as the AN'ellington and Marlborough, now afloat. In all this long list of examples we have a gradual, steady, forward progress, without one check or break. Each century is in advance of the one before it, and the result is as near perfection as we can well conceive. But if we ask who effected these improvements, or who invented any part of the last-named wonderful fabrics, we must search deep indeed into the annals of the navy to find out. But no one has inquired, and no one cares to know, for the simple reason that, like architecture in the middle ages, it is a true and living art, and the improvements were not efi"ected by individuals, but by all classes, e

liv INTRODUCTION. owners, sailoi-s. sliipwrij^lifs, and men of science, all working topfctlieithrongh centuries, each lending the aid of his experience or his reasoning. Jf wi' place alnngfsidc of this siTics of ships a list of churches or cathedrals, commencing with Charlemagne and ending with Charles V,, we find the same steady and assured progTcss obtained by the same identical means. In this instance, princes, priests, masons, and mathematicians, all worked steadily together for the whole period, striving to obtain a well-defined result. In the ship the most suifcxble materials only are employed in every part, and neither below nor aloft is there one single timber nor spar nor one rope which is supei-fluous. Nor in the cathedral was ever any material used that was not believed to be the most suitable for its purpose ; nor one foim of construction which did not seem the best to those who employed it ; nor any detail added which did not seem necessary for the pxirpose it was put there to express ; and the consequence is, that we can look on and contemplate both with the same unmitigated satisfaction. The one point where this comparison seems to halt is, that shipIniilding never became a purely fijie art, which architecture really is. Tlu' difference is only one of aim, which it would lie as easy to apply to the one ju't as it has been to the other. Had architecture never progressed l^eyond its one strictly legitimate object of house building, it never would have been more near a fine art than mer(;hant shipbuilding, and *])alaces would only have been magnified dwelling-places. Castles ajid men-of-war advanced both one stage further towards a fine art. Size and power were impressed on both, and at this stage they stand precisely equal to one another. Here ship-building halted, and has not progressed beyond, while architecture was invested with a higher aim. In all ages men have sought to erect houses more dignified and stately than those meant for themselves. They attempted the erection of dwelling-places for their gods, or tem]des worthy of the worshij) of Supreme Beings ; and it was only when this strictly useful art threw aside all shadow of utilitarianism, and launched boldly forth in search of the beautiful and the sublime, that it became a truly fine art, and took the elevated pcjsititai which it now holds above all other useful arts. It would have been easy to supply the same motive to shipbuilding. If we could imagine any nation ever to construct ships of (Jod, or to worship on the bosom of the ocean, shijis might easily be made such objects of beauty that the cathedral could hardly compete with them. It is not, however, only in architecture or in ship-building that this process is essential, but the progress of every art and every science that is worthy of the name is owing to the i^amc simple ])roccss of the aggregation of experiences; whether we look to metallurgy or mechanics, cotton -s]iinning or coining, their perfection is owing to the same cause. So also the sciences — astronomy, chemistrj', geology — are all cultivated by the same means. ^\ hen the art or science is new, great men stand forth and niake great strides ; but when

INTRODUCTION. IV roaches maturity, and becomes the property of the nation, ihe individual is lost in the mass, and a thousand inferior brains follow out steadily and surely the path which the one great intellect pointed out, but which no single mind, however great, could carry to its legitimate conclusion. So far as any reason or experience yet known can be applied to this subject, it seems clear that no art or science ever has been or can bo now advanced by going backwards, and copying earlier foims, or those applicable to other times or other circumstances ; and that progress towards perfection is only to be obtained by the united efforts of many steadily pursuing a well-defined object. Wherever this is done, success seems to be inevitable, or at all events every age is perfectly satisfied with its own productions. Where forward progress is the law, it is certain that the next age will surpass the present ; but the living cannot conceive anything more perfect, or they would apply it. Everything in any true art is thoroughly up to the highest standard of its period, and instead of the dissatisfied uncertainty in which we are wandering in all matters concerning architecture, we should be exulting in our own prodiictions, and proud in leaving to our posterity the progress we have made, feeling assured that we have paved the way for them to advance to a still higher standard of perfection. As soon as the public are aware of the importance of this rule, and of its applicability to architecture, a new style must be the inevitable result ; and if our civilization is what we believe it to be, that style will not only be perfectly suited to all our wants and desires, but also more beautiful and more perfect than any that has ever existed before. XIV. — PROSPEgJS..-^ If we turn from these speculations to ask what prospect there is of the public appreciating correctly this view of the mutter, or setting earnestly about carrying it out, the answer can hardly be deemed satisfactory. The clei'gy, not only in England but on the continent of Europe, have arrived at the conchision that the Gothic style is the one most suited for church-building purposes ; and this has now become so established a point that no deviation from Gothic models is tolerated. Any architect who would attempt originality in plan, or introduce even a new detail or moulding, is immediately set down as ignorant of his profession, and the ex])eriment is not repeated. Evciy year that we continue in this path, and that our knowledge of the style becomes greater, the heavier will our chains become, and anything like originality or progress in this important branch of architecture more absolutely impossible. The study of the classical languages, to which so much importance is attached in our public schools, and in our own and most foreign universities, tended at one time in another way to withdraw attention from the formation of a true stylo of architecture by fixing it exclusively on Greek and Eoman models. The lienaissauce in the 15th century t' 2

Ivi INTRODUCTION. arose much more from admiration of classic literature than from any feeling for the remains of buildings which had heen neglected for centuries, and were far su7-])asscd by those wliich succeeded them. The same feelings i)erpetuated by early association are the great cause of the hold that classic art still has on the educated classes in Ein-ope. In clubs and mixed societies the style usually adopted is the Italian, out of which progress may come if common sense bo allowed to prevail over classical precedents, or the contrary if the reactionary element bo allowed to obtain the preference. Below these there is another class of men who have but little sympathy with Greece or Rome, and still less with mediaival monkery or feudalism, but who in their oAvn strong sense seem inclined to take a mure reasonable view of the matter, and these men are now erecting at Manchester and in other cities of the North a series of warehouses and other buildings designed wholly with reference to their uses, and oniaraented only in their constniction, and which consequently are as far as their utilitarian purposes will allow^as satisfiictory as anything of former days. Eastward of Temple liar there are many buildings arising on the same system, and with a little more experience they promise to be as satisfactory as those in the North. In civil engineering, the lowest and most prosaic branch of architectural art, our progress has been brilliant and rapid. Of this no better example can be given than the four great bridges erected over the Thames. Those of Westminster, Blackfriars, Waterloo, and London were erected at nearly equal intei-vals during one century, and the steady piogrcss which they exhibit is gi-eator than that of almost any similar l)ranch of art during any equal period of time. In this department our progress is so undeniable that aVc saw old London Bridge removed without regi-et, though it was a Avork of the same ago and of the same men wdio built all our greatest and best cathedrals, and in its own line was quite as perfect and as beautiful as they. But it had outlived its age, and we knew we could rejilace it by a better — so its destniction was inevitable ; and if we had made the same progress in the higher that we have in the lower branches of tlie building art, we should see a Gothic cathedral jtulled down with the same indiiferenco, content to know that we could easily rei>]ace it by one far nobler and more worthy of our age and intelligence. No architect during the middle ages ever hesitated to pull down any part, of a cathedral tliat was old and going to decay, and to replace it witli something in the style of the day, however incongruous that }night be ; and if wo were progressing us they were, we should liave as little compunction in following the same course. In the confusion of ideas and of styles which now jirevails, it is satisfactory to be able to ccmtemplato, in the Crystal Talace at Sydenham, at least one great luiilding carried out wholly in the princi])les of Gothic or of any true style of art. No material is used in it which is not the best for its puqiose, no constructive exixdient employed which was not absolutely ess.'utial, and it depends wholly for its cifect on the ai rangement of its parts ,in

INTIIODUCTION. Ivii essentially is its ])iinc'iplo the sninc which, as we have seen, animated Gothic architectnie, that we liaidly know even now liow nmch of the design belongs to iSii' .]oso})li Taxton, how much to the contractors, or how mnch to the subordinate officers employed by tlie Company. Here, as in a cathedral, every man was set to work in that department which it was supposed ho was best qualified to superintend. There was room for every art and for every intellect, and clashing and interference were impossible. This, however, is only the second of the series. A third would probably as far surpass it as it is beyond the first ; and if the series were carried to a hundred, with more leisure and a higher aim, we niight perhaps leani to despise many things we now so servilely copy, and might create a style surpassing anything that ever went before. We have certainly more wealth, more constructive skill, and more knowledge than our forefathers ; and living in the same climate, and being of the same race, there seems no insuperable difficulty in our doing at least as much if not more than they accomplished. Art, however, will not be regenerated by buildings so ephemeral as Crystal Palaces, or so prosaic as Manchester warehouses, nor by anything so essentially utilitarian as the works of our engineers. The one hope is that, having commenced at the bottom, the true system may extend upwards, and come at last to be applied to our palaces and churches, and the whole nation lend its aid to work out the great problem. Whenever its significance is rightly appreciated by the public, this result seems inevitable ; and with the means of diffusing knowledge which Ave now possess, we may perhaps be permitted to fancy that the dawn is at hand, and that after our long wanderings in the dark, daylight may again enlighten our path and gladden our hearts with the vision of brighter and better things in art than a false system has hitherto enabled us to attain. /

PART I.

HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. INDIA. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. The countries commonly described under the general name of India fonn in tliemseWes a group completely detached from the otlier kingdoms of the ancient world, and diii'cr entirely from them in all their most striking pecidiarities. We may therefore consider them separately from the rest, and as a subject complete in itself. India was undoubtedly one of the earliest civilised countries on the face of the globe. This fact is proved by her sacred writings which still remain to us, the Vedas, which were arranged in their present form at a very early period of the world's liistor}'. We also possess the laws of Menu, which are believed to have been compiled at about the same time as those of Lycurgus. Tliese, too-cther with such frairments of her history as can be extracted from the strangely falsified chronology of the Indian historians, testify that the plains of this great country were at a very early period covered with regular communities of civilised men. These actual records arc strt)ngly confirmed by the very fables and traditions of the West, which all point to India as the land of wealth and learning — the El Dorado of the ancient world. It was to India that the mythic heroes of ancient Greece, Hercules and Bacchus, bent their steps ; and, from the time of the scarcely less fabulous Semiramis to tliat of Cyrus, it was the desire to reach her long-coveted treasures that called forth the mightiest efturts of the great central monarchies of Asia. Darius and Alexander followed the same path of ambition with better success, but even they coidd never penetrate beyond her boundaries, never saw her sacred streams, nor the fertile plains they watered. Persia and Parthia formed a barrier which prevented Pome from ever attempting to seize by conqiiest the wealth which, reaching her by the more peaceful channels of commerce, formed the staple of that till then unheard-of accinnulation of luxury and riches which dazzled

2 HANDBOOK OF AHCniTECTURE. liooK T. tho ancient world, and still excites the incredulity of the present age. It was the memory of that Indian contribution to IJome's magnificence that formed the dream of the dark ages, and sent Columbus to seek her fiibU'd treasures in the distant west, and enabled Vasco da Gania to bravo the terrors of the stunny Cape. But while tho contemporary nations have left behind them architectural monuments, there are no such traces remaining of the ancient greatness of India. What we have are entirely the work of a later age than tliat of which we are now speaking. The existing remains of these later times are on the whole very complete, and in good preservation. Notwith-standing this, the investigation of them is attended with much (lifHculty, arising from the indiflerence with which the whole subject is ]-('garded, almost universally, by the Anglo-Saxon sojourners in the country. In all the older BritLsh settlements all architectural remains have nearl}" disappeared ; and very little has been done to elucidate those which remain. In any attempt to understand either the history or the arts of India, the first and most important point to l)ear in mind is, that the mass of the p(»pulati

Chap. 1. INTRODUCTOllY. 3 thought it impious to rear witli hiunan hands a house for the one Great Spirit of the univei"se, whose manifestations were nothing meaner than the sun and phinots, and whose emblem on earth was fire, the purest and most suhtic of visiMo things. Aceordingly the Persians built no tejiiples. Even when Darius had learnt from more western nations some notions of architectural magnificence, the buildings which were raised in Persia were palaces rather than temples. The Grecian temples Avei-e borrowed from Egypt ; the Poman from Greece and Etruria ; and our o-\\ai from Pome. The Teutonic tribes, when first kno\\ni to the Pomans, " thouglit that to confine the gods within walls, or to represent them in the image of man, was unworthy of the greatness of heavenly beings."' Throughout the Vedas there is no allusion to temples nor to images, nor indeed to any public form of worship. Every man stood forth in the presence of his God, and without intercessors ofiered up his prayers with the prescribed foims, or gave utterance to those hymns of praise which he thought were acceptable ; but always feeling himself to be in the immediate presence of the Deity, and appealing dii-ectly to His mercy or supplicating His favour. Among such a people it would of course be in vain to look for any monuments of importance ;^ and while these Arian races remained unmixed with the other inhabitants of India, and retained their pure V edantic feitli, they left, so far as we now know, not one single monument to tell of their existence.^ In the seventh century before the Christian era, a prophet, Sakya ]\Iuni. was bom. in India, the result of whose teaching was the introduction of the Buddhist religion into that countrj'' ; and conserpient on this change was the elaboration of a style of architcctui-e, the most ancient as well as the most interesting of those whose monuments are found scattered over the plains of India. Although much has lately been done to clear up the obscurity that has hitherto hung OA'er the history of the introduction of Puddliiism into India, much still remains to be done before the story of its founder can be said to be placed on a satisfactory basis. It is recorded of him that he was one of the last lineal descendants of that long line of kings called the Solar race, who for more than two thousand years had lield supreme sway in the Valley of the (Janges, but who, at the time of the birth of Sakya Muni, had dwindled before the rising influence of the Lunar races, from the imperial glories of the kingdom of Oude, to the position of petty princes of a small and undistinguished state near the foot of the Himalaya. Here it was that Sakya was born in the yeai' 623 B.C., and spent the earlier j^ears of his life in the usual occupations 1 Tacit. Germ. wliich can last more than a very limited ^ Perhaps til is absence of old remains can number ot" years. .See book i. ch. iv. bo illustrated l>y a very analogous case. In * A curious negative corioboratiou of this Eurmah, a country of comparatively modern exists in the fact that neither Megasthenes settlement, no buildings, with the exception nor any (jreek writer ever alludes to any of temples, are allowed by law to be con- temple or remarkable building as existing in stiucted of brick or stone. Consequently India, which could hardly have been the case tliere are only a few pagodas in that country had any existed. )5 9

4 HANDBOOK OF APiCniTFXTURE. Book I. and aiuiiseinents of those of his raiik. At the a}2;e of 35, he — to use the hxngnaj^o of his foHowers — attained to Huddhahood, and sjicnt the reniaiiiinr(nnulp»tiiig tlioso doctiines which snhseqiiently obttiined such universal acccptancu in all the countries of Kastcrn iVsia. One or two points in the doctrines of Buddhism will be necessary to be borne in mind. The present Buddha — Sakya Muni, or Sinha as he is generally called — is held to be only the fourth of the great Bmhlhas. I lis three i)redecessors, Kakusanda, Konagamma, and Kasya]ia, are su]ipttsed to liave existed in extremely remote ages. Tlieir history, as might be exi)ccted, is a mere mass of fables and absurdities. The Buddhists expect a fifth manifestation of the Deity in the person of Maitri Buddlia. who is supposed to bo now going through the iniiumeiable transmigrations necessary to the attainment of Buddhahood : these transmigrations being an essential part of the whole system. We shall find, in speaking of Thibet, a curious extension of tlie belief. There the divine soul is held to pass immediately from one ])elai Lama to his successor, so that tlioy are never Avithout a living manifestation of the lower class of Buddhas, which they believe their great Lamas to be. It is still a disputed point among the learned whether Sakya ^Muni was the original inventor of this religicm, or even its first introducer into India. There are many and stnuig reasons for supposing that he cannot even aspire to this last distinction, for there are certainly many traces of the existence of at least a similar faith, in that country, before his time ; though he no doubt gave it that mode of worship, and fixed upon it those peculiar doctrines, which aftei'wards distinguished it fi'om the other religions of the land. Traces exist of very similar institutions, long before the time of Buddha, in Ethiopia, and as far west as ( 'yrene. In Syria we have something very similar to it in the tenets of the sect of the Essenes ; and at P>abyl(m it is nearly certain that a religion closely allied to it was long tlie faith of a large section of the lieoi)le. Pythagoras, the contemporary of Sakya ]\Ium, introduced doctrines of the same class at Crotona, in Ifcily ; and in Persia the sect of tlie Magi adopted rites and practices so simijar, that it is not easy always to detect the distinction between them. Immediately after the death of Sak>a Muni, the first great convocation or c(uincil of his followers and disciples was held at Rajagriha in P.ehar, and a second about a century afterwards at Vaisjila on tlie (Junduck, o]iposite Patna ; and though, if we may believe the traditions, these assemlilies were most numerously attended by thousjuids of priests from all parts of the country, we have still no proof of the religion having been generally adopted at that time by either the people or their rulei's. W e know that Chandragujjta. so familiar to us as the Sandracottus of Alexander's historians, still adhered, with all his court, to the old Braliminical faith ; so did his son Bimbasaro. His grandson Asoka, however, after leaching the imperial throne by the murder of his hundred brothers, forsook the faith in wliich lie liad been brought up,

Chap. I. INTIIODUCTOIJY. 5 and adopted tliaf ol" I'liddha. lie then, witli tlic zeal ufa new eonveii;, used the influeuce he possessed nn the most i)owerful monarch of India in those ages, to establish it as the state religion of the conntry. lie afterwards extended it to Ceylon on the south, and Afglianistau on the nortli ; though, as hhatcd above, there is reason for suspecting that something similar to it existed before his time in the last-named country, one of the original seats of the Arian race. It was in the seventeenth year of the reign of this king that the third convocation was held in the city of Palibothra, the modern Patna, almost exactly 300 years after the death of the founder of this religion, where the doctrines and fornndas of the faith seem finally to have been settled. It is of more impoi-tance to our present pui-jiose, that wdth this king (250 B.C.) the architectural history of India commences : not one building nor one sculptured stone having yet been found in the length and breadth of the land which can be proved to date before his accession. From his time, however, the series of ukjuuments, some monolithic, some rock-cut, and others built, is toleiably complete during the ten or twelve centuries in which Buddhism continued to be a prevalent religion in the country of its birth. After this we lose the thread of our architectural narrative in India Proper, but it is continued in C'e^don, Burmah, Java, Thibet, and China, to the present day; and we pro})Ose to follow it through all the mutations it has undergone in these different lands, before considering the other styles that arose and still exist in India. Each of them will occupy a niche to itself in the following order. After the Buddhist styles, as above enmuerated, will come — 1. The Jaiiia style, a corruption of the pure Buddhist by admixture with the Hindu style. 2. The Soutfwni Hindu, a style of architecture of the Tamul races of the South. 3. Northern Himhi, a cognate style, occurring in the Valley of the Ganges .and its tributaries. 4. The modern. Hindu, or that fonn which Indian architecture took after being modified by the influence of the j\Iahometan styles. 5. The Cashnirian and other aberrant styles, which cannot be included under any of the preceding heads.

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HANDBOOFv OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. CHAPTER II. BUDDHIST AKCHITECTURE. CONTENTS. Divisiou of subject — Topes, Sanchi — Temples, Karli — Monasteries, Ajunta Uruameutation of caves. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMOllANDA. DATES. DATES. Birtli of GauUima Uudiilia . ... B.C. 623 | Cuttack caves, from 200 b.c. to alxiul Christian era. I)cuth of Gautama Buddha, and first con- i Topes al Bilsali . 2nd ceut. b.c. to 2nd or 3rd a.v. Vocation huld 543 Cliandragiipta, con tem]K)rary of Alexander 325 Aaoka: third convocation held. Buddhism made the relit,'ion of the state. Ijflts erected. K.irliest monuments and inscriptions in India 250 Dasaratha, his grandson. Earliest caves in Bebar about200 Vicramaditya buildings at Oiyein . . . b.c. 56 Salivah;ma cave at Karli A.D. 79 Topes at Manikyala 1st cent. b.<:. to="" or="" a.d.="" topes="" in="" afghanisuin="" .="" cent.="" caves="" at="" ajunta="" isl="" loili="" llth="" ellora="" stli="" samath="" ....="" the="" exaiii="" remain="" of="" buddhist="" architecture="" have="" hitherto="" been="" iuii="" exaiuiucd="" and="" are="" little="" kno="" it="" is="" therefore="" by="" no="" means="" easy="" classify="" them="" so="" txs="" include="" all.="" same="" time="" render="" divisions="" clear="" intelligible.="" following="" an-angement="" believed="" represent="" our="" present="" knowledge="" sidiject="" with="" tt="" exactness.="" topes.="" i="" this="" name="" included="" most="" important="" cla.="">ss of liuildiugs. They consist of detached pillars, towers, and tumuli, all of a sjicred or moniunental character. The word is a coiTuption of the Sauscrit sthnixi, meaning a moiuid, heap, or caini. 2. Temples. — Known fis Chaifi/a halls, or caves. 3. Monasteries. — I Uiaras, being the residences of the priests. TovKi. This chtss includes edifices diftering from one another i)rineipally in the purposes for Avhicli they were erected. The oldest and simj)lest topes were single pillars (.sY//(;»i'r/.s), either carved out of one stone or regularly built ; the former l)eing distingnished aw Lufs. The oldest monument** hitherto discovered in India are a group of these monoliths set up by Ascjka in the middle of the third centuiy B.C. Tliey were all alike in tonn. and all bore the sjinie in.scription. licing four .*

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Cii.vr. 11. BUDDHIST AliClllTECTUKE. ■^^rr^-i summit. The necking immediately lielow the capital (wood2. Honeysuckle ornameut from capiUil ol Lat. pnf Xn 2^ TPllTesents wdth considerable purity, the honeysuckle ornament of the Assyrians, which the Greeks borrowed from them with the Ionic order. It is very interesting to meet witli it also on tlie earliest known monument of Buddhist art. The pillar at Allahabad litis lost its cajiital, but we are able to su])ply the deficiency from two of the Tirhoot examples, which retain their capitals with the lions which seem to have crowned the summits of all. In these we meet with the bead and reel ornament familiar to us from Persian Greek architecture. The capitals are so similar to the lower members of those at Tersepolis, and more especially to the bases of the columns there, as to leave no doubt of their 3. Capital nf Lat mi llio GimUiick. Krom advuwini; by tlie late Capt. Killoe. It is almost ceiiain that these jiillars of Asoka stood originally in front of some sacred buildings whic-h hav(> ]H'ris]ied. AVe know that the great tope of Sanchi had one oi- two such monoliths in front of each of its gateways, and the great caves of Karli (woodcut No. 18) and Kennari show ' g[i^^ liad recently embracetl.' Of tliese one is at Delhi, having been reerected by Feroose Shah in his pabice, as a monument of his victory over the Hindus. Three more are standing near the river Gunduck, in Tirhoot ; and one, represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 1), has recently been placed on a pedestal in the fort of Allahabad. A fragment of anotlier was discovered near Delhi, and part of a seventh was used as a roller on the Benares road by a Coml)any's engineer ofHcer. The following description of the Allahabad pillar will of c(.)U)-se serve for all. It is one stone, 42 ft. 7 in. in height, of which 7 ft. 7 in." may be considered as the base, which probably was buried to some extent in the ground, or in the masonry that supported it. The shaft, projierly so called, '^^x\^ was 3 ft. in diameter at the hixse, diminishing to 2 ft. 2 in. at the li:;:^:':';:: . ■;!« •1/ ', ■ ■''T'. i-:,hi-m ';':'"-iK Vi mi' q I r . ^.II.S '! i. □k ■^ — ■'i'^ . Lut ul AUaliabud. ' TraiislateJ by .1a^. I'liiiso]!, in tlio sixth * 'I'liese diinensioiih are t;ikcii iVuin ('apt. volume of the Heiigal Journal of the Asiatic Biiit's ilia\vini;s jmblished in the J. A. S. 15., Society, p. 566 ct scq. vol. iii. plate 3.

8 liUDDHIST AKCIHTECTURE. Book 1. similar pillai-s cut in the rock in front and on each sitle of tlic entrance of the ^-roat halLs, which, therefore, we may assume to he their proper position. There is no instance, so far as I am aware, of a built monumental jiillar now standing in India. This is sufficiently accounted for by the ease with which they could be thrown doAvn and their materials removed, when they had lost the sanctity by which alone they had been })rotectcd. There arc, however, two such pillars among the topes of Cabul, and evidently coeval with them, now called the Surkh Miliar, and ]\Iinar Chakri. These are ascribed by the traditions of the place to Alexander the Great, though they are evidently liuddhist monuments, meant to mark some sacred spot, or to commemorate some event, the memory of which has passed away. They are probably of the third or fourth century of our era, and their shape and outline exhibit great degeneracy from the purer forms with which architecture commenced in India, and which were there reting one of the principal characterLstics of l>uddhism. In some of the tojics which have been opened regvdar relic-chambers are found, some still furnished ^v^th the relics themselves, others ])lundered of their treasure. These were projierly designated as tkir/Dhas (from dhntn, relic, and (lalilm or (jarlKi, shrine or womb), of whieh the word pagoda ajtpears to be a 4. Surkli Minar, Cabul. From a drawing by Mr. Arasson in Wilson's Ariima Antiqua. ' 1 Kin^s vii. l(i, ct scq.

c'i[Ai>. II. Tor?:s. 9 corruption. Other topes have been found to contain neither relic nor relic-chamber, and these must have been erected to nuirk some sacred spot or ct)nuueniorate some event in tlie history of I'uddlia or of his religion. The origin of relic-worship is thus accounted for by the traditions of JJuddhism. It is said that at the death of the founder of the religion eiglit cities disi)uted the possession of his mortal remains. The diliticulty of a decision was avoided by a disti"ibution to each of some portion of the sacred relics. Of these by far the most famous is the Tooth relic, which, till the last few years, was so carefully guarded by the British govern(n's of (Jeylou, as the Palladium of our sovereignty over that island. This originally foil to the lot of Kalinga, and was magnificently enshrined on the spot where now stands the celebrated temple of Juggernath at ruri. Here it remained till the fourth century, when it was conveyed for a short time to Patna, then the capital of the country. After pei-forming many miracles there it was restored to its original place of deposit, but only for a very short time ; — for, on the invasion of the country by strangers from the East, it was conveyed to Ceylon, concealed in the hair of the king's daughter : it was received there in the year 311 of our era, and has ever since continued the most precious treasure of the realm.' Besides this, Ceylon possesses the left Collar-bone relic, enshrined in the Thuparamya pagoda at Anuradhapoora (woodcut 31), and the Thorax-bone, enshrined at Bintenne, near Kandy. The Mahawanso, or groat Buddhist history of Ceylon, describes the mode in which this last building was raised, by successive additions, in a manner so illustrative of the principle on which these relic-shrines arrived at completion, that it is well worth qiioting: — "The chief of the Devos, Sumano, supplicated of the deity worthy of offerings for an offering. The Vanquisher, passing his hand over his head, bestowed on him a handftil of his pure blue locks from the groAving hair of the head. Receiving and depositing it in a superb golden casket, on the sjjot where the divine teacher had stood, he enshrined the k)ck in an emerald dagoba, and bowed down in worship. " The thero Sarabhu, at the demise of the suprenie Buddha, receiving at his fiuieral pile the Thorax-bone relic, brought and deposited it in that identical dagoba. This inspired personage, causing a dagoba to be erected 12 cul)its high and enshrining it, thereon departed. The younger brother of King Devenampiatisso (b.c. 250), discovering this marvellous dagoba, constructed another encasing it, 30 cubits in height. "King Duttagamini (b.c. IGl), while residing there, during his subjugation of the Malabars, constructed a dagoba, encasing that one, 80 cubits in height." " Thus was the Mahiyangana dagoba completed."* It is possible ' See account, of Tooth relic liy the Hon. xv. p. 2(>o, &c. &c. G. Tunioiir, .'. A. S. B., vol. vi. p. 8r>(> it - Abstracted linni 'rumour's Jlahawaji.so, seq. Sterling t'uttack, Trans. A. S. B., vol. p. 4.

10 l',n)l)II[t^T ARCHITECTURE. Book J. that at each succetssivo addition some new deposit wa« made ; at least UKtst of the topes examined in Afghanistan and the Punjanb show signs of these successive increments, ami successive deposits, one alK)ve the other. About 30 topes have been opened near liilsfih by Major Cunningham, of the Bengal Engineers, and Lieut. Maisey, ten of which have yielded relics of the most interesting character. One tope contained relics of tlie two principal disciples of Buddha; another of Moggalijmtra, who presided over the third great convocation held by Asoka. Others contained relics of those missionaries whom we know to have l)een sent by Asoka to convert the nations of the Himalaya and of the banks of the Indus, liclics were found of other priests and saints whose names and acts are still iniknown to us. The whole of these discoveries tend to confirm to a very great extent the traditions that have come down to us, besides making the intent and pui-pose of these buildings perfectly clear and intelligil)le. By far the finest as well as the most perfect tojie in India is that of Sanchi, the ])rincipal one of those opened near Bilsah, in Central India. It is uncertain whether it ever contained relics or not, as it had been dug into in 1819 by Sir Herbert Maddock, since which time it has nnuaincd a ruin, and may have been ])lundcred by the Uiitives. At any rate it must have been a s])ot of peculiar sanctity, judging both from its own magnificence and fi-om the number of subordinate topes grouped around it. In fact there are a greater number of these monuments on this spot, within a space not exceeding 17 miles, than tliere are. so far at least as we now know, in the whole of India from the Sutlej to Cape Comorin. The general appearance of the Sanchi Tope will be understood View of Sancbi Tope. from the view of it (woodcut No. 6), and its sha])e ami anaiig. ni.nl from tlie plan and section (Nos. 6 and 7). From these it will lu observed that tlie princijial building consists of a ilome sijmewhat less than a hemis].here, 10(i feet in diameter, and 42 feet in height, with a l-latfoi-m on the top 34 feet across, which originally formed the basis

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CllAl'. II. TOPE AT SANCHI. LNT RANCr of the tee or cupitul, which was the invariable finish of these monuments.' The dome rests on a sloijinjj; base, 14 feet in height by 120 in diameter, having an olfset on its summit about G feet Avido. This, if we may judge from the representations of topes on the sculptiires, must have been surrounded by a balustrade, and was ascended by a broad double ramp on one side. It was probably used for processions encircling the monument, which seem to have been among the most conmion Buddhist ceremonials. The centre of this great mound is qxiite solid, being composed of bricks laid in mud ; but the exterior is faced with dressed stones.' Over these was laid a coating of cement nearly 4 inches in thickness, which was, no doubt, originally adorned either wath painting or ornaments in relief. 6. Plan of Tope at Sanchl. ^-^^^^^^^^^^I^^^^^^S^^^^J^^^^^^^^^^S^^^i^^-V 5 10 liinll-Jll 1. Section of Tope at Sauchi. The fence by ^vhich this tope is surroimded is extremely curious. It consists of stone posts 8 ft. 8 in. ^ high, and little more than 2 ft. apart. Tliese are surmounted by a plain architrave, 2 ft. 4 in. deep, slightly rounded at the top. So far this enclosure resembles the outer circle at Stunelu'iige ; but between every two uprights three horizontal cross-pieces of stone are inserted, of an elliptical foiTu, of the same depth as the top ])iece, but only 9 in. thick in the thickest part. This is the only built example yet discovered ^ 0 ■i55i^^^^^^^^^^JJS^';" ■'■'^»f^y^ Stone bahistiado fonniiij; the enclosure at Sandii. ' The diawini^s, j)lans, &c., are tivken from a Memoir by (.'apt. ,1. 1 ». t'uiuiiiigliani, J. \. S. R., August, 1847.

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12 liUDDHiST Alien ITECTUllE. Book T. of an architectural ornament which is found carved in evety cave, ami, imlocil. In almost every ancient linddhist Iniildinp; knoAvn in India. Thi' uiiiMst.s or ])illars of this (■nrlosiirc hear inscriptions iudicatinj;- that tlicy were all . 74(i et tion on tlie eastern piteway (J. A. S. li., vol. «''/.), the illustrations of which, thon^h iiivi. |). 4.">4) is evidently a siil)seeloni;s to the fourth century A.I). pies and monasteries at the same place. * One of these gateways is engraved in ■* Since this work went to pres.s, Majoi-, great detail, and to a lar^^e scale, as a title- now Col., Cunningham's work on these j)age to the author's Illustrations of Indian Topes has been jiublished in this country, Aicliitcifuie. anil, though full of interesting details and ' The above particulais have been taken illustiations. adds little to the infoiniation from a ])aper by the late Cajit. .1. !>. (/un- jireviously obtained.

Chap. IT. 'VOVK AT MANIKYALA. i:5 pilasters in low relief, prol:)iil)ly as a snbstitTite for the independent railing of the Sanelii Tope. These M. Court describes as having capitals with ranis' heads (tpieri/, bulls' ?), like those at I'ersepolis.' This is likely enough in itself, but could scarcely have failed to be mentioned by the accurate Elphinstone,* had it been correct. This tope was opened in 1830 by General Ventura ; and three separate deposits of relics were found at the depths of about 25, 45, and 65 ft. respectively, each apparently increasing in value with its depth fi'oni the top. \V ith these were buried a great niuuber of coins, besides many placed intermediately between the principal deposits. From these it appears that the upper deposit is certainly as modern as the time of the Sassanidoe, being of the fourth or fifth century. But the lower relics may be two centuries earlier, though the evidence on this point is by no means so clear as might be desired, nor were the excavations so carried on as to show whether the tope had reached its present dimensions by successive additions like that at Bintenne (p. 0), or Avhether it had been erected at once. The former was probably the case, judging from the difierent depths at which the relics were found. The most important relic appears to have been a brown liquid contained in a box with an inscription on its lid. When this inscription shall have been deciphered, we shall probably know in honour of what saint this vast mound was erected. There are at least 15 other topes in this group, one of which was opened by M. Coiirt, who found in a square chamber, 10 ft. above the level of the ground, a gold cylinder enclosed in one of silver, and that again in one of copper. The inner one contained -i gold coins, 10 precious stones, and 4 pearls. These were no doubt the relics which the tope was intended to preserve. The inscription was illegible, so that we cannot ascertain to whom they belonged. There were silver coins in the tope, and in the cylinders, though not in the innermost one. These are Roman Consular coins^ of Mark Antony and Augustus Cajsar. The others are Bactrian and native coins, generally supposed to be near the Christian era in date, so that we can have no hesitation in ascribing the tope to the first century. It is so ruined externally that we can form no comparison of the probable age of this and the others. The dates therefore of the greater part of these topes must remain micertain till they have been systematically examined. A very large enclosure of a tojie is foiind at Amravati, near the mouth of the river Kistna, in the IMadras territory. It now bears the name of Dipal-dinna, or IMount-of-liglit, but why it is so calhul has not hithei-to been accoimted for. The annexed plan (No. 9) will explain the general arrangement of the place. The tank shown in the centre is nt)t an original part of the stnicture. Its excavati( )n ' J. A. S. B., Vol. iii. J). 557. drawn by the author. .1. A. S. B., vol. iii. * Journey to Cabul. The view in his p. 314 et seq. work, though the best we has-e, is not pro- ^ J. A. S. B., vol. iii. pp. 5G0 and 635. bably to be depended upon. It was not

14 HUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE. Book I. >.t; 4^> 9. was comnicneed in the last century, and continiied in the present, till sumo troubles in the district caused it to he abandoned and left as it MOW is, incomplete. As far }i.sthe traditions collected hy Colonel Mackenzie are Intel ligil)le, the monument in the centre wa.s o])ened by a local liaja in search of treasu'-e, but, failing in finding any, he deti'rmined to utilize the space he had cleared by forming in it a reservoir of water. These operations have effectually destroyed all trace of what the central shrine originally consisted of. It can scarcely have been a large and solid mound like that of Sanchi, because, if so, an immense ma.s.s of worthless material has been entirely removed, while many stones of far greater value, and easily transported, remain in situ. From the great size of the whole enclosure, and fi-om the care and labour displaj'cd in the parts which remain, we may conclude the central shrine to have been some object highly ornamented and of great sjvnctity.' These remaining parts consist piineipally of two concentric circles of npriglit stones, the outer 19.] ft. in diameter, and between the two a paved jjathway 13 ft. in -w-idth. The upright stones are not, like those of the Druidical circles in Europe, mere nnshaped masses, but are cant'd with a minuteness unkno^\^l anywhere else, even in India, 'i'his may lie seen both in the elaborate and beautiful drawings which ( "olonel ^Mackenzie caused to be made of them — copies of which exist at ^ladras, Calcutta, and in the East India House — and also in specimens of the stones themselves, which he sent to all these places. \\ ith our impoifect knowledge of Buddhist history, it is impossible to identify jiiany of the scenes and siibjects represented, but they certaiidy form one of the most complete illustrations of Bnddliist foi-ms and traditions that can possibly be conceived. Besides these two circles of stones, the remains f )f two < if its gateToi)e of Amraviili. From a MS. plan in thf India House. Scale 10(1 fl. lo 1 in. • Tho p.-jrticulars from which the account Collection in the Indi.i House, and .i pajjer iin

CiiAr. ir. TOPE AT SARNATH. 15 ways (out of four tliat probably originally existed) have been cxhnmed, tliongli the drawings do not snflfice to explain what their form and elevation were. We may, however, believe them to have been of the sanio character witli those at Sanchi above described, as very similar gateways are more than once represented on the sculptiires at this very place. The moinid of earth that surrounds it, backing up the outer circle of stones, seems merely to be the rubbish from the excavation of the tank, and not at all a part of the original design. This is evident from the tact that tlie carving at the back of the stones, which is of the same character with that at the front, is hidden by it. The removal of this rubl)ish is much to be desired, and would probably lead to important discoveries. At present we cannot fix the date of the tope witli any exactness. All that we can now say is, that it probably was commenced in the third or fourth century of our era, and may have been continued down to the tenth or twelfth. A great number of tiunuli of various sizes surround this great tope, but none, so far as I am aw^are, have been opened or examined with care. Caves too, with their walls adorned wdth fresco paintings, occur in the neighbourhood, but they too are unexplored. Besides these usual accompaniments, this district abounds in wdiat are called Panchc Kalis, being circles of unhewn stones, identical in every feature with the Druidical circles of Europe, except that their dimensions are smaller, their diameter being generally about from 10 to 20 ft. As far as has been ascertained, they were nearly always burying-places, which does not appear to have been the case wdth the circles in Europe. A few^ miles north of Benares is a group of topes, known Ijy the name of Saniath, the principal of which is of a tower-like form, between 50 and 60 ft. in diameter, and 110 ft. in height. The lower part is cased with stone, and adorned with eight niches, surmounted by triangular canopies, and ornamented by bands of scroll-woi'k of great beauty and delicacy. These, however, have only partially been finished ; for, like all Indian sculpture, it was added after the masonry was complete. The upper part is in a ruinous state, and appears most probably never to have been finished. It has been opened,' but no relic or relic-chamlier was found. This spot has been visited by two Chinese travellers. Fa Hian ^ in the year 405, and Hiouen Thsang in the seventh century, who describe all these topes and the purposes for which they were erected. The great tope now standing at Sarnath seems to have been raised in the end of the 6th or beginning of the 7th century, and to be the identical one described by Hiouen Thsang. It must have replaced oienclosed that seen by Fa Hian. As neither of these travellers mentions ' This building was opened by Major Cun- count ever been given of the result of the ningham, under Mr. I'rinsep's auspices, in excavation. 1830, and careful drawings made of ever)' * Fuo Koue Ki, p. .10."). Voyages de Hipart of it, which Were, I believe, engravcil, ouen Tlisang, p. 13o. im it never ])ublis]ied, nor has any detailed ac

16 lU'DDiriST AnrniTECTURE. HuOK any relics as existing; here, we are perhaps justified in assuming that. none were ever deposited, but that this and the neighbouring topes were erected to eomincniorate events in the life of Buddha. At Keseriah, in Tirhoot, about 20 miles north of IJakra, where one of the })illars of Asoka mentioned above is found, are the niins of what ajipeai-s to have been a very large tope. But it is entirely ruined externally, and has never been explored, so that we cannot tell what was its original shape or purpose.' All along this line of country numerous Buddhist remains are found, though all more or less ruined, and none of them have been carefully examined. This is the more to be regretted, iis this was the native coxnitry of the founder of the religion, and the place where apparently his doctrines were originally promulgated, if anything older tlian the age of Asoka is preserved in India, it is probably in this district that we must look for it. The annexed woodcut of a tower on the Giriyek hill south of Patna, in Behar, is coi)ied from an engraving which is the only piddished descri})tiou of the object it represents. It is ascribed by the natives to Jarasandhu, a king who lived and reigned here five or six centm-ies before Buddha's time. He is a favoiu-ite popular hero, like the Pandus, his contemporaries, to whom half the ancient things in India are ascribed. P.ut there is no doubt that it is a Buddhist monument, and probably of Asoka's time, or a little later, and erected to commemorate some action, or the performance of some miracle.* The most extensive group of topes known to exist is that of Jelalabad. These are situated beyond the Indus, and therefore not strictly witlun the limits of India as usually defined. But they stand directly in the track by which the Arian races entered India. That district, at the time when they were erected, and indeed long before, was so closely connected with India as to be almost always confounded with it by the earlier historians. The oldest tope hitherto discovered in these parts, or probably indeed in India, is one at Jamalgiri, 30 miles north of Peshawur. 10. Tower on Oiriyik Ilill. From o drnwinR l>y Mr. Knvonsliaw, J. A. S. of Itciig^l, vol. viii. J). 35:i. A view of it is given, .1. A. S. 15., vol. .is contr:ulistin;;iiished from the last mortal IV, p. r-2. one. I cMH, however, trace no .such distinc* Mnjnr riinninirliMm. in a jjaper recently tion in form in the Buddhist writings or traread to the h'oyal Asiatic Society, suggests ditions, and am not aware on what he founds that those to|)es which contained no relic such an assumption, were dedicattti to the first immortal I'.uddlia

CiiAi". II 1 iJl'DDIliST AlU'lIi'lKCrrinv 17 Tt consists of a circular buildiiij;', proluibly 20 ft. in diameter,' ornamented by 18 figures of Buddha sitting in the usual cross-legged position, each figure separated from the one next it hy a pilaster of Coi'iuthian design . This central building is surroundetl by an enclosure probably 50 ft. in diameter — a poKgon of 13 sides with an opening in each face — now a mere wall of rude masonry, but once no doubt richly omamcnted. Fragments of its sculpture have been recovered, and are so nearly Greek in character, so infinitely superior in design and execution to anything else which has hitherto come home from that coimtry," as to prove incontestably that they must have been executed while the influence of the Graeoo-Bactrian kingdom was still strong in that quarter : a conclusion which is further confirmed by the relative importance of the enclosure, and the general architectural arrangements of the building. A great number of the remaining topes were opened by Dr. Honigberger in the years 1833 and 1834 ; and the results of his numismatic discoveries have been published in Paris and elsewhere. The only account that we have of the buildings themselves is that given by ]Mr. Masson, who, with singular perseverance and sagacity, completed what Dr. Honigberger left undone.^ The topes examined and described by Mr. Masson as existing around Jelalabad are 37 in number, viz. 18 distinguished as the Darunta group, 6 at Chahar Bagh, and 13 at Hidda. Of these about one-half yielded coins and relics of more or less importance, proving the dates of their erection to extend from a few years before the Christian era to the fifth or sixth century. In general appearance they difler considerably from the great Indian topes just described, being all taller in proportion to their breadth, and having a far more tower-like appearance, than any found in India, except the Samath example. They are also smaller, the largest at Danmta being only 160 feet in circumference. This is about the usual size of tlie first-class topes in Afghanistan, the second class being a little more than 1 00 feet, while many are much smaller. In almost every instance they seem to have rested on a square base, thougli in many this has been removed, and in others is buried in rubbish. Above this rises a circular base or drum, crowned by a belt, sometimes composed merely of two architectural string coTirses, with different-coloured stones disposed as a diaper pattern between them. ' The building was discovered and e.xca- ham, by tlieir proprietor, E. C. Baylej', Ksq., vated by Lieuts. Lumsden and Stokes of the B. C. S. Company's service, and some drawings and ^ l\Ir. Masson's account was communicated plans published in the Journal of the Asiatic to Professor Wilson, and by him juiblislied Society of Bengal, in Nov. 1852, but without in his Ariana Antiipia, with lithographs from scales or dimensions, or any such description ^Ir. JIasson's sketches, which, thouijjh not so as would make the architectural arrange- detailed as we could wish, are still sufficient nients intelligible. to render their form and appearance intelli'^ These sculptures are at present deposited gible. for exhibition in the Crvstal Palace at Syden

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18 IIISTOTIV OF AlM'IIITKCTrTIK [B. K>K ^'•'W^^SBPBS^^^MIK^nV . 'f^»KiSf,^ Sometimos a r!in() -topes in the neighbourhood f)f Cabul. but all vt-ry mncli ruined, and few of any .striking importance. 8o at lea.st wi' are led to infer from Mr. Masson's very brief notice of them. No doubt many others still remain in spots hitherto unvisited by Europeans. In the iimnediate vicinity of all these topes are found caves and tumuli, the fonner being the residences of priests, the latter for the most pai-t burviTjg-places, perha]»s in some instances smaller relic11. Tupe at Bimcrjiii. From a. ilrawing by JMr. Massun, in Wilsuii's Arimia AiiUqua. 2. I'opf , Suliiiiiporc. From n drawing liy Mr. Masson, in Wilson's Ariaiia Anti

C'llAl'. II, J lUDDIllST AIU'IIITKCTURE. 19 shrines. 'ilieir exact destiiiatiou cannot he ascertained witliout a careful investigation by persons thoronglily conversant with the snhject. Tliei-e are many points of great interest which still require to he cleared up by actual examination. \Mieu this has been done we may hope to be able to judge with some cei'tainty of their afHnity with the Indian buildings on the one hand, and those of Persia on the other. None of the topes described above— indeed, no built tope in India — retains a vestige of its tei'- oi- terminal, which nevertheless must have (irowncd them all when in their original and perfect state. No representation of a tope — and there are some hundreds among the sculjitures of Amravati and Sanchi, and in the painting at Ajunta and elsewhere — is ever without this indispensable accompaniment. All complete rock-cut topes in the caves, as well as the models Avhich are strewn by hundi'eds about Gya and other Buddhist sites, are so adorned, as are also all modern topes in Burmah, Thibet, and elsewhere. With so many authorities there is no difficulty in restoring this member, though it certainly would be a satisfaction to find one in situ. Its earliest form seems to have been that represented in the annexed woodcut, from the relic-shrine in the cave No. 10 at Ajunta.' It consists of a square box, probably (n'iginally of wood, and afterwards copied in stone, its lower part being an exact copy of the railing enclosing the tope at Sanchi (p. 11). Above this is an ornamental frieze of window-heads, exactly resembling tlie arch hereafter to be described in the Karli cave. The whole is covered with three horizontal slabs projecting one beyond the other. In this form there can be very little doubt but that it was, or at all events represented, a chasse, or relic-box ; and it is more than probable that originally the relic was not placed in the tope, but on its top. At all events, we find from Fa Hian and others that the relics were frequently exhibited in public, and consequently must have been placed in some accessible slirine ; and nowhere could one be placed in a position more consonant with the purpose of the monument or its architectural peculiarities than this one is. If we may venture to adopt this conjecture, it will at once explain several peculiarities, and reconcile several difficulties. In the case of topes in wliieh no relic has been found, as that of Sanchi, Ave may conclude that there was in many cases originally some sacred object which has disappeared mth the terminal which contained it. In the Sultanpore tope (woodcut No. 12), it would be only necessary to suppose a determination to enclose a relic that had previously been accessible, to l.t. Haso of a W'Q cnl in llio rock at Ajiintn. Ilhi.strations of the Rock-cut Temples of India, by the author, p. 17, anil plate iii., tVoni which tlie woodcut is tai

20 TIISTOIJY OF ARCHITECTURE. [Hook [. axicount for the peculiarities of its stnictiire. Had we draAvin<: of="" the="" exterior="" chambers="" in="" avhich="" relics="" are="" found="" inside="" tlutopes="" this="" question="" would="" he="" easily="" settled="" but="" researches="" which="" have="" been="" made="" has="" entirely="" overlooked.="" representations="" toi="" lead="" us="" to="" believe="" that="" base="" was="" most="" instances="" though="" not="" invariably="" surmounted="" by="" an="" umbrella="" common="" s3="" royalty="" and="" state="" among="" eastern="" nations.="" all="" modern="" pagodas="" one="" oldest="" eaves="" india="" at="" ivarli="" woodcut="" no.="" a="" wooden="" still="" surmounts="" shrine="" is="" apparently="" original="" part="" design="" if="" indeed="" very="" mnbrella="" first="" set="" up="" years="" ago.="" some="" three="" mnbrellas="" were="" placed="" above="" other="" process="" time="" these="" ornaments="" came="" be="" copied="" stone="" assrune="" more="" strictly="" architectural="" character="" tope="" its="" teniiinal="" took="" spire-like="" form="" like="" cave="" ajunta="" ko.="" where="" umbrellas="" become="" spire="" itself="" as="" tall="" proportion="" any="" those="" afirhanistan.="" m.="" rock-ciu="" ajiinti.="" kridi="" .1="" rlniwiiir="" l="">y tlip Anllicr. Small model found in the Tope at Snlt.-uipofe.

CiiAi'. 11.] 15UDT)MIST AUCHITKCTUKI':. 21 Oiico enfrancliisocl I'ruiu the exigencies of wooden coustructioii, the ti'ansforniation of the terminal went on rapidly until it comes to consist of seven,' or even a greater number of discs or umbrellas. This is shown in the model (woodcut No. 15) of a tope in steatite,^ found in the to[)e at Sultanpore ^ (Avoodcut No. 12), belonging most probably to the second or third century of our era. It will be observed that the discs, which constitute the u])per part of this model, are of a shape which coiild not well be copied on a lai-ge scale in stone, at least in the 0])cn air. But it is evidently the type of numberless other examples found all over India, and more especially of the models found near Gya, except that the latter are so far modified in shape that large copies of them could be worked in stone. In modern times the terminal has frequently become the whole monument, and in Thibet, and more especially in China, the domical part is wholly omitted, and the moniunent expands into a seven or nine-storied tower, vdth scarcely a trace of its origin or oi'iginal destination. In India, too, the Jains biiilt seven and nine-storied towers, which no doubt had the same source, but without retaining more of the original form than the trans-Himalayan examples. Tumuli. The tumuli of India now remaining have no features which would entitle them to be regarded as architectural objects. In fact they are little different from the barnnvs of Europe and other parts of the Avorld : and this analogy is of itself worthy of remark. Bixt it is b}' no means certain that the tumuli were all as devoid of decoration from the first ; for in Ceylon, Thibet, and other Buddhist countries, the tombs of princes and distinguished individuals are built and ornamented exactly like the topes. It is far from certain also that the same may not be true with regard to those in Afghanistan. It has been before observed that the object of the topes in that country is very imperfectly knoAvn. TeMI'LKS. As before hinted, no built examples exist in India of the two remaining classes, the temples (^Chaitt/as) and monasteries ( I iharas), into which we have divided the objects of Buddhist architectui'e. But the rock-cut examples are so numerous and so ])erfect, that this is hardly to be regretted, except for one singular and somewhat puzzling i)eculiarity — that it leaves us wholly Avithout the means of judging what the external appearance of those buildings was. We are thus forced to treat it wholly as an internal architecture. Thus for one-half of the subject we have abundant materials ; for the other none at all.'' It is ' Supposed to be symbolical of the seven ' Wilson's Aiiana Aiitiqua, pp. 5;5 and 89, Dyani Buddhas. " idate iii. - The steatite was cunsideied a sacred ■* It is probabU" that a tolerably correct stdiie by the Buddhists in all ay;es, and is so idea of the cj^-neral exterior appearance (if the now by the Chinese, under the name of Yu buildin;4S from which these wives were i opied stono. All their more sacied vessels are may be oljtained from tiie 7u(f/is (as they are made out of it. called) of Mahavellipore (book i. ch. vii.,

22 lllSTOUY (IK AHriHTECTL'HI-:. ' Book 1. by no meiiDs iniiiossibk- that in tliL' in.'ivn being found within the limits of the Bombay presidency. The remainder consist of two groups, those of Behar and Outtack, neither of which are imjiortuiit in extent, in Bengal ; one only, that of Mahavellipore, in Macbiis ; and two or woodcut 42). Tlipsp are monuments of a doubt t"lu'ir being, in most respects, close niiicli later date, and belonging to a dillbrent copies of tiiein. ri-li'.;ion, but tliey •orrespond so nearly in all ' Illustrations of the liouk-cut Teiiij)les ol tlurir |»iiits witii the temples and uionastcrio India, 1 vol.; text 8vo., with folio plates, now under consideration, that \\f cannot Wcale, l.onclon, 1845.

('11A1-. U.j BUDDHIST AKCIIITKfTriMv 23 three not very iin))oitant groups, wliicli luivc Llth traced in At'glumistan and the I'uiijauh. 1 was at one time inclined to connect this rcmaikabh' Ideal distrihution Avith the comparative proximity of this side of India to the rock-ciitting Egyptians and Ethiopians. Ihit the ctnncidcnce can be more simply accounted for by the existence of rocks in both countries [)erfectly adapted to stich works. 'J'he whole cave district of India is composed of horizontal strata of amygdaloid and other cognate trap formations, generally s})eaking of very considerable thickness and gi'eat unitbrmity of texture, and possessing besides the advantage of their edges being generally exposed in perfectly perpendicular cliffs. So that no rock in any part of the world coidd either be more suited for the purpose or more favourably situated than these formations are. They were easily accessible and easily worked. In the rarest })ossible instances are there any flaws or faults to disturb the uniformity of the design; and when complete they afford a ])erfectly dry temple or abode, singidarly uniform in temperature, and more durable than :uiy class of temple found in any other part of the world. \\ itli these advantages we need hardly look further for an explanation of the phenomenon ; though some collateral points of explanation may perhaps reveal themselves to future explorers. Their distribution as to time also presents a curioiis anomaly. iSo far as our knowledge now goes, the oldest are luuloubtedly those of Behar and Cuttack in Bengal. The former of these were all excavated in the two centuries preceding the Christian eia, and of the latter the greater part are equally ancient, though a few probably extend to a century or two after our era ; whereas the oldest on the westein side — the earliest, for instance, at Ajunta and Karli — can hardly date anterior to the birth of Christ, if so early, and extend to the tenth or perhaps even the twelfth centiuy of our era. Thus the juactice of excavating the rock was almost immediately abandoned in the coixntry where it arose, and was taken ^^p and pursued to an extraoi'dinar}extent in a district where it certainly was not original. From the time of Dasaratha, the grandson of Asoka, who two hundi-ed years before Christ excavated the first cave at liajagriha, to Indradyumna, who apparently finished the last of those at Ellora, the series is uninterrupted ; and, if properly examined and dra-vvai, the caves would furnish us with a complete religious and artistic history of the greater part of India during fourteen centuries, the darkest and most perplexing of her history. But, although during this long })eriod the practice was comnuju to Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains, it ce;ised with the Mahometan concpiest, or before it. Hardly one excavation has been made or attempted since that period, except perhaps some rude Jaina monoliths in the rock at Cualior. and it may be one or two in southern India. Kakij. The well-known cave at Karli, situated on the road lietAveen Bond)ay and Poonah, is the largest as well as the most complete hitherto dis

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24 IIISTOHY OF AHl'IIITFCTUltE. [li(M>K cDvereil in India, and was excavated at a time wlieii the style vva« in its ijjri'atest jmrity. There are no very certain gi'oundis for fixing the date of its excavation, hut \vc sliall not err far in attributing it to the ceutuiy before or aftci- tlie Christian era — most ]»rt)bably the latter. There are some rciisons for ascribing it to the era of Salivahana ( a.d. 7S). although this, it must be confessed, is at present little more tlian a mere apj)roximation to the truth. IB. Section "f Cave at Karli. S

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CllAI-. II. I BUDDTIIST AlUMtrrKCTUinv ' ■.•! :r.k' ' ^"^r::

2U HISTOUY OF AKCIIirKCTl'UH. [H(k.k I. tlie Indian tcniidc. In lHii;lit, liowcvcr, Karli is very inferior, being only 42 or peihaps 45 it. from the floor to the apex, ua nearly a« ean be ascertained. Fifteen pillars on Ccicli side separate the nave from the aisles ; eaeli of these has a tall base, an oetagonal shaft, and riehly ornamentetl eajiital. on whieh kneel two elephants, each bearing two figures, generally a man and a woman, l)ut sometimes two females, all very mneh better exeented than sueh ornaments nsually are. The seven })illars behind the altar are plain oetagonal piers, without either ba.se or eapital, and the four iinder the entrance gallery differ considei'ably from those at the sides. These sculptures on the capitals supply the place usually occupied by frieze and cornice in Grecian architecture ; and in other examples plain painted surfaces occupy the same space. Above this springs the roof, semicircular in general section, but somewhat stilted at the sides, so a« to make its height greater than the semidiameter. It is ornamented even at this day by a series of wooden ribs, j)robably coeval with the excavation, which i)rove beyond the shadow of a doubt that the roof is not a copy of a masonry arch, but of some sort of timber construction which we cannot now very well understand. Immediately inuler the scmidome of the apse, and nearly where the altar stands in Christian churches, is placed the shrine, in this instance a plain dome slightly stilted on a circular drum. As there ai'O no ornaments on it now, and no mortices for wood- work, it probably was originally ])lastered and painted, or may have been adorned with hangings, whieh some of tlie sculptui'cd representiitions would lead us to sujjpose was the usual mode of ornamenting these altars. It is surmouiited by a teiminal the base of which is similar to the one sho\vni on wr)odcut No. 13, and on this still stand the I'cmains of an inul)rella in wood, very much decayed and distorted by age. ()pl)osite this is the entrance, under a gallery exactly corresponding with our n)odloft, consisting of three doorways, one leading to the centre, and one to each of the side aisles, and over the gallery the whole end of the hall is open, forming one great window, through whieh all the light is admitted. This great window is arched in the shape of a liorseslioe, and exactly resembles the omament« on the upper part of the terminal found at Ajunta (woodcut 13). and the arches whieh suimount the niches in the hall of the (ddest monastery cave at Ajunta, to l»e described hereafter, 'i'he outer porch is considerably wider than the body of the building, l)eing 52 ft. wide, and is closed in front by a screen coinposed of two stout octagonfil pillars, without either base or capital, supporting what is now a plain mass of rock, but was onc-e ornamented by a wooden gallery Avhich fornu'd the jirincipal ornament of the facade. Above this a dwarf colonnade or attic of four columns between pilasters admitted light to the great window, and this again was surmounted In' a wooden cornice or oniamciit of some sort, though we cannot now restore it, as only the mortices remain that attaciietl it to the rock. Still further in advance of this st-finds the lion-])illai', in this instance

Chap. IT.] BUDDHIST ARCHlTKCTL'llK. 27 ti ])liiiii shaft with ."{2 flutes, or ruthcv faces, snrnionntccl l)y a caiiital not unlike that at Kesariah (woodcut No. 3), but in this instance it su})ports four lions insteatl of one. Another similai- ijillai- jti-ohahly stood on tlie ojipositc side, but it has either fallen or been taken down to make way for the little temple that now occupies its place. The absence of the wooden ornaments, as well as our ignorance of the mode in which this temi)le was finished laterally, and the porch joined to the main temple, prevents us from judging of the eil'ect of the front in its perfect state. But the proportions of such parts as remain are so good, and the cflFect of the whole so pleasing, that there can be little hesitation in ascribing to such a design a tolerably high rank among architectural compositions. Of the interior we can judge perfectly, and it certainly is as solemn and grand as any interior can well be, and the mode of lighting the most perfect — one undivided volume of light coming through a single opening overhead at a very favouralile angle, and falling directly on the altar or principal object in the building, leaving the rest in comparative obscurity. The effect is considerably heightened by the closely set and thick columns that divide the thi'ee aisles from one another, as they suffice to prevent the boundary walls from ever being seen, and, as there are no oi)enings in the walls, the view between the pillars is practicalh' xuilimited. All these peculiarities are found more or less developed in all the other caves of the same class in India, varying only with the age and the gradual change that took place from the more purely wooden forms of this cave to the lithic or stone architecture of the moi-e modern ones. This is the principal test by which their relative ages can be detci-mined, and at the same time proves incontestably that the Karli cave was excavated very shortly after stone came to be used as a building material in India. The following list, of which I have placed Karli ' at the head for the sake of comparison, includes I believe the seven inost beantiful. or at least best known, examples of this sort. There are many other cave-temples scattered through the various groups of the western ghats, but none of them have either been diawn or described in such a manner as to allow of their being classified or even enumerated i 1 1 such a work as this. Length. Width. Probable age. Karli . ... . 126. 45-7 . 1st contiiiy after Cli ist Ajunta (Xo. 10) . . 94- G . . 41-3 . . Ditto. (?) Do. (No. 9) . . . 45. 2:32iiil or orJ century. Do. (No. 19). . . 4i;-4 . . 23-7 . 5th century. Do. (No. 2G). . . ij(j-l . . 3y3 . . 9th or 10th ceutuiy. Viswakarma EUoia . . 85-1 . . 437th or 8th century. Kauiiari . . . . . 88-0 . . 39- lU . . ;)th or loth ceutury. As will be seen from this list, the next in age and size to Karli is ' 'i'he other six 1 have niVM'lt' vi.sited ainl ineanureil.

28 HISTORY OF AHCIHTKCTIJIIE. [Book 1. 19. Section of Cave No. 10, Ajunta. No scaK'. the oldest cave at Ajuntu.' 'I'hese two caves are very similar, except that at Ajunta all the pillars are pliiin (iL-t;i.d. Over this rose the roof, somewhat flatter than the Ivarli oue, but like it adorned with wooden ribs; in this instance, however, these have peri.shed, and left only their marks and fastenings behind. But in the aisles these wooden ribs are represented by stone ones, carved out t>f the solid rock. 'J'his wt)uld seem to indicate an advance in style, and consequently more modem date ; but the greater simiilicity of other parts precludes the idea of anv great dift'erence in aoe. Its section will be luiderstood by the annexed woodcut, which also explains the arrangement of all the caves, and may give us some notion t)f the exterior form of the buildings Avliicli these caves imitate. The next cave, No. 9, is nearly similar to this, except in size, and has less appearance of age than its neighbour ; it is, however, very much ruined, and both of them have lost their fa(;ades, from the precipice having fallen awa}', in the face of which they were excavated. No. !!•, at Ajunta. is one (,)f the most perfect of the class in India, having been excavated before the style had become utterly degenerate, but after all the essential parts of the style had so long and so fre(piently been repeated in stone, that they had lost all the raw a^jpearance of their wooden originals, and had in consequence become, strictly speaking, architectural features. No. 2(5, though very similar to this in many respects, was excavated at too late a period to retain much purity of style, and all its details are coarse and clumsy when conqtaied with the last ; while its sculjitural arrangements show such a degenerate tendency towards modern liiuduism, as to denote that the style was at its last gasp when this cave was commenced. The well-known cave, the Viswakarma, atEllora, occupies an intermediate ])lace between these two. In it the style has become so com]>letely a stone one, that, had we no knowledge of the earlier wooden originals, we might be led to suppose that many of the forms and details arose from the exigencies of construction and vaulting. It is ' Tlio toe of its tliifjolKi is ilrawn, woodcut llliistratiniis i>t' tlit- Kock-cut Teinjilcs ot" Nil. i:{; a view of its interior is s^iven in the India, \>\;\U- iii.

, ■* othesis than the one suggested above. Besides these, several of the Behar caves are perhaps entitled to be called cave-temples, though, never having had an opportunity of visiting them myself, and no correct or detailed dra\A'ings of them having yet been published, I speak with considerable diffidence legarding them. The most interesting of them, architecturally at least, is that called the Lomas Eishi, the only one of the group that possesses an architectural facade. It is covered with an inscription which, if authentic and coeval, might induce us to ascribe it to the fourth century ; every detail, however, betrays so distinctly its wooden origin, that it must be earlier — perhaps even before the Christian era — and therefore the earliest we are acquainted with. All the peculiarities of the wood are so literally copied in the rock, that if drawn in detail we should have no great difficulty in restoring the original built form from what we find here. 'J'he arrangements of this cave are very peculiar, and difier from those of Western India in many respects. As will be seen from the annexed plan,^ the door- -r*«*^>|a^»^t««»«w«^ way with the architectural facade is at the side -^'"'^W^ ' ^^^ instead of the end ; and the innermost part or ^i '*' j^ - « s 'W shrine, instead of being a copy of the exterior *4s*^.,v*' 3.'. s" . 'JS of a tope, is here a domical chamber, capable of j -__^ receiving a relic or any other sacred thing for 20. Lomas iiishi Cave. which such a sanctuary might be used. This peculiarity is so interesting, and so illustrative of the original form of these caves, that I have giA-en a plan and section of another, the Sat Gurbha cave (woodcut jSo. 21), which is veiy similar to that last described both in size and arrangement, but with the shrine somewhat differently arranged. These caves receive no light excejit through the narrow entrance at the side, so that the interior is nearly dark, and that of the innennost chambers quite so. The Sat Gi;rbha cave is perfectly complete and polished throughout, while the Lomas Kishi is not, as it was apparently never quite ' Illustrations of the Rock-cut Temples of * From one published by Capt. Kittoe, in India, by the author, to which I must refer an iiiferestintj paper on the caves in the May for further particulars and illustrations of all number of the J. A. S. B. for 1847, from these examples. which the woodcuts are taken.

30 HiSTOliY OF AliClllTKCTCnE. [B.mK 1. finished iiitornally ; and as both caves are excavated in Syenitic granite of the hardest and most compact character, the hiljoiir tlic}' must liave required will alnictst hear coni])ariMHMM|MMgM|MMMMH| son witli that IJCKtowcd on their lar

CiiAi'. 11.^ RUDDIIIST AIJCIIITKCTUUE. "I course do the caves

32 IIIS'I'OIIY (»F AlJflll'IKC'ILHE. [Book I. nally or internally, generally square, and Avith a sl()])ing jambetl doorway. In one instance, however, the Gopi Koohlia.' the cell is magnitied into a hall 4() ft. ."> in. by 10 ft. 2 in., with scniicircnlar ends and a curvilinear roof, the whole being most carefully polished, which, considering the hardness of the granite rock in which it is cut, makes it a work of far more labour than many of those in the West, though they are generally not only laiger, but more elaborately ornamented. The caves in the L'dyagiri, near Cuttack, being cut in a far more tractable material, a fine-grained sandstone, show much more fancy and architectural magnificence in design, and consist of all the various cla&ses and grades of such residences, from the simple cell of the solitary ascetic to the rich and ]io]iulous monastery. One of the most remaikable of the first class is the so-called Tigercave, being in fact a large mass of rock, cai'ved into a form intended to represent the head of that animal, whose extended jaws form the verandah leading into a small apartment excavated in the interior of the skull (see woodcut No. 22), (Jenerally speaking, these single cells have a porch of two pillars to protect the doorway, which leads into a small room 10 or 12 ft. square, constituting the Avhole cave, buildings on precisely the same plan are still very common in India, exce])t that now, instead of being the abode of a hermit, the cell is occuitied by an image of some god or other, and is surmoimted by a low dome, or pyramidal spire, converting it into a temple of some pretensions. The lower part, however, of these small temples is very similar to the rock-cut hermitages of which we are speaking. The next extension of the cave system was to fonn an oblong cell with a verandah of the same length in front of it, in plan like the Ganesa cave at Cuttack (woodcut No. 2.'}) ; all Ihe larger caves at this place being either similar, or extensions of the same idea. The Thakoor cave, for insbmce. has a A'crandah 55 ft. in length, with wings extending at right angles in front of the principal facade. This cave, being two stories in height, might accommodate froiu 40 to 50 monks, whereas the Ganesa cave, supposing it to have been divided between each of ihi- four doors it possesses, could only accommodate four or five. 22. Tiger Cave, Cuttatk. 23. Giinesu Cave. Scale 100 ft. to I ill. From a pluii by tlic .Viitlior. ' For p.irticiilars of these caves I am in- the .T. A. S. B., March, May, and .'September, debtwl to sevenil pji|)ers, bv ('ajit. Kittoe, in 1847, from which the woodcut is tiiken.

Chap. II. WESTERN CAVES. 33 In uonu of these uivcs is there seen cithci' a tsliriue ur any phiee where one eoukl he jihiced ; the probahility, therefore, is, that they were attached to some sacred edifice which has long since disappeared. Another pccnliarity, showing that they must have been constnicted before the Christian era, is, that no trace of a sanctuary is foinid, nor any image of Buddha or of saints. The only actual worship of Avhicli there is any trace is that of the Bo-tree, represented on one bas-relief in a cave called the Jodeo Gopa, proving how early that worship was introduced, and how j)re-eminent it was among Buddhists in those days. Western Caves. Among the various groups of caves in the Bombay Presidency we lind counteii:)arts of all those existing in Bengal ; but the former caves generally speaking have assumed a shape which makes a marked distinction between them and the older caves of Bengal. This consists in separating the cells from the hall around which they are placed — an arrangement, I believe, unknown in Eastern India. The oldest cavemonastery at Ajunta is a hall 30 ft. 7 in. square. It is adorned with seven niches on every side, arched in a horse-shoe shape like the great window at Karli. Of these seven niches the first, third, fifth, and seventh are blank. The remaining three are occupied in the inner sides by doors leading to cells, of Avhich there are thiis nine, on the outer side by the entrance-door and two windows. It is evident, however, that it requires the stratum of rock in Avhich the cave is excavated to be singularly perfect to admit of such a surface being left wholly without support. The next step, therefore, seems to have been to introduce 4 pillars on the floor, which is done at Ajunta in the cave No. 1 1 , next in age and situation to the one last described, r • 1 I ,.„, '1 ^ k,^ iS, w a / 24. Cave No. 11, at Ajunta. From a plan by the Author. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. 25, Cave No. 2, at Ajunta. From a plan by the Author. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. which, thoiigh the area is not larger, has this necessary adjunct arranged as shown in the annexed diagram (woodcut No. 24). The next step was to introduce 12 pillars to support the roof, there being no intennediate nimiber which Avould divide by 4, and admit of an opening in the centre of every side. This arrangeD

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34 BUDDIHST ARCHITECTURE. l^OOK I. ment is slxowii in tlie woodcut No. 25, representing the plan of the cave No. 2 at Ajunta. Before this stage of cave architecture had been reached, the worship had degenerated considerably from its original ])urity ; and these caves always possess a sanctuary containing an image of IJuddha. There are frequently, besides this, as in the instance under consideration, two side chapels, like those in Catholic churches, containing images of siibordinate saints, sometimes male, sometimes female. The next and most extensive arrangement of these square monasterycaves is that in which 20 pillars are placed in the floor so as to support the roof, 6 on each side, counting the comer pillars twice. There are several of these large caves at Ajunta and elsewhere ; and one at Raugh, on the Tapty, represented in woodcut No, 26, has, besides the ordinary complement, 4 additional pillars in the centre, a precaution taken evidently in consequence of the rock not being sufficiently homogeneous and perfect to be able to support itself without this additional precaution. ^J" WMdl D 3 m a e " o L3 1 Q a u SM u; ! a a ffl a O u U J ^ 26. Cave ul Uaugh. From ii pliiii, by Capt. Diiiigerfiold, in the 'rransactioiis of the Bombay Literary Society. These — which might be classed, according to the teims used in (iieek architecture, astylar, when having no pillars; distyle, when with two j)illar8 in each face; teti-a-style, AN^th four; and hexastyle with six — form the leading and most iharactenstic division of tlie.se excavations, and with sliglii iiiMdilicjiii.in an- to be found in all the modem seiies. The forms, however, of many aie so various and so abnormal, that it woidd require a far more extended cla.ssitication to enable us to

ClIAl-. H. ORNAMENTATION OF CAVES. 35 ■27. Durbar Cave, Salsette. From a plan by the Author. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. describe uud iuLludo iliciu all. lii many iiiKtances the great depth of the cave which this square arrangement required was felt to be inconvenient ; and a more obhjng form was adopted, as in the plan of the Durbar cave at Salsette (woodcut No. 27), where, besides, the sanctuary is projected forward, and assists, with the pillars, to support the roof. In some examples this is earned even further, and the sanctuary, standing boldly t'orAvard to the centre of the hall, forms in reality the only suppoit. This, however, is a late arrangement, and must be considered Hiurc as an economical than an architectural improvement. Indeed the dignity and beauty of the whole composition are almost entirely destroyed by it. Ornamentation of the Caves. The principal mode of embellishment adopted in these caves was painting, if not exactly in fresco, at least in some soii of distemper, in many, indeed in most instances, the plaster with which the walls were prepared to receive the coloured decorations has peeled oft", owing either to the dampness of the rock, or to the mischievous violence of idle men. In some of the caves, however, at Ajunta and elsewhere, the paintings still remain nearly complete, and as fresh as the day they were painted. A competent artist, Captain Gill, of the Company's Sei'vdce, has been employed for some years in copying these. ^\ hen the series is complete they will not only form a most valuable illustration of Buddhist history and tradition, and of the mannei's and customs of India more than a thousand years ago, but the}- will illustrate to a very considerable extent the form and ordinance of the very Imildings they adorn, as many representations of architectin-al objects are interspersed among the figured subjects, quite sufficiently well drawn to be understood by those who are familiar with the style they belong to. In some of the older caves not only the walls and roof, but even the pillars, are wholly covered with stucco, and oi-naniented with painting. This painting is divided, generally speaking, according to the following rule. On the walls are extensive compositions of figures and landscapes ; on pillars, single detached figures, representing either Buddha or Buddhist saints ; while the paintings on the roof are almost invaiiably architectural frets and scrolls, often of extreme beauty and elegance, rivalling many of those at Ponq)eii and the Baths of Titus. This threefold division is in fact the only one admissible in good taste, D 2

36 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE. Book I. or only with the «li

CiiAr. II. I'lI.LARS. :{7 In the earliest caves, as was no doubt the case in the earliest buildings, the pillar is a square mass, from four to six diameters in height. This is brouglit within the domain of architecture by cutting oft' the angles, so as to reduce it to an octagon, in the oldest temple at Ajunta this is done for the whole height ; but a more common practice is to reduce only the central part to an octagonal form, leaving the base and capital square, as in the example from the Ganesa cave at Cuttack (woodcut Ko. 28). This system is carried to a greater extent by again cutting oif the angles of the octagon, so as to produce a shape of 16 sides; and these are sometimes fluted, as in the example on the next page from one of the monasteries (No. 17) at Ajunta. It shows also the construction of the roof explained above, consisting of larger and smaller beams, crossing one another at right angles, so as to support the tiles of the flat roof. In this example only the central part of the pillar is adorned with painting, the plainer members being covered with stucco, but each fluting is filled with a scroll intermixed with flowers, beautifully painted, and the discs, which are introduced where the form changes from a square to a figure of 16 sides, are also coloured. In the third example (woodcut No. 30) the pillar changes regularly from 4 to 8 and 16 sides ; then, as is frequently the case, a circular member is introduced, and it returns thi'Oiigh the octagon to the square which supports the bracket, forming a whole which may be considered as the typical order of Indian architecture ; the division into 4, 8, and 16 parts pei-vading every member of it, and the ornaments in this instance, both sculptured and coloured, being continued with increasing I'ichness from the base, or near it, to the capital. These, and indeed most Indian pillars, terminate upwards in a bracket capital, more or less developed. In woodcut No. 28 the capital is only a wooden ornament repeated in stone, this being one of the (Eldest examples in India. In the next example it is more important, and in the last full}^ developed ; though in many instances it is both wider and deeper, and more important than even in this example. In all these instances it will be observed that the ornament is not, as in Grecian and Eoman architecture, confined to the base and capital ; but when ornament is attempted in India, it is nearly equally distributed over the whole surface of the pillar, from the gTOund to the horizontal member it is destined to support. This is a peculiarity wliicli gives singular richness to some of the buildings, and when Pillar in Ganesa Cave, Cuttadi, From a sketch by tbe Author.

38 BUDDHIST AIJCHITECTUKE. I'OOK I. executed with taste is particularly effective, for internal architecture at least. Another circumstance which p^ves considerable richness to the style is, that the pillars in a building are never exactly alike, but varied in design according to their position, or, as often happens, for the mere sake of variety.' In some of the older and simpler caves, where there is little or no car\'ing on the pillars, the variety is in the painting, and that only ; but when they are carved, the variations are much more striking. In a 20-pillared vihara, for instance, the two pillars on each side of the entrance are genei-ally alike; so are those immediately beyond on the right and left ; and so again are the next pair fui-ther removed on each side from the centre. The range on the right and left generally take their character from the last two, and those on the fourth side again increase in richness towards the centre, the two most elaborately' adorned being the central pair opposite 29. Pillar in VUiara No. 17, at AJunta. From a skcUli ly the Author, the altar. When done symmetrically in this manner, the effect is singularly pleasing, though the practice cannot be defended when mere caprice seems to gxiide the hand of the designer. It then requires that the variation should be so slight

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CllAl'. 11. PILLAH8. 39 as not at first sight to bo apparent, or the efiect is fiir from i)lcasiiig. In all the host Indian examples, however, these defects seem to haAc been avoided with singular taste and judgment. 30. Pillar at Ajunta. From a sketch by the Author.

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40 lUTDDUIS'l' AROIHTECTUHK. Hook [. CHAPTER I IT. CEYLON. CONTENTS. Description of niius ni Auuradhapoora — Ruins at Mohenteie — Great monastery ami sacred tree at Amiradhapoora — Ruins of Pollonarua. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. DATES. novonanipirttissa, conteniporary witli Asoka. Introduction of Buddhism to Ceylon. Building of Tlnii>aramya 'i'ope, and that at Mehentele, &c B.C. 250 Dootoogamoiii. Huilding of Ruauwelle Tope, and Malia lx)\va I'aya Monastery. 161 n.VTES. Walagambalni Iniilds Abay.igiri . . . b.c. 104 Abha Sena builds Lanka Raniaya . . . a.d. 231 Malia Sena builds letawana Tope . . . 275 Pandu: invasion fri mi Caslinieer . . . 431 Aggrabodlii diauLjcs capital to Pollonarua. 769 W^ayabahoo, capital Hambadiaia . . . 1235 It will liavo been obsei-ved that none of the remains of Biiddliisni in India arc foimd in the great cities. We are enabled to judge of the greatness and .splendour of the buildings Avhich have there perished from the ancient capital of the island of Ceylon, -which still retains, though in ruins, the greater part of the religious monuments that adonied it in the days of its greatness. Anuradliapoora became the capital of Ceylon about 400 years before Christ, or about a century and a half after the death of Buddha, and the fabled introduction of his religion into the island. It Avas not, however, till after the lapse of another 150 years that it became a sacred city, and one of the ])rincipal capitals of Buddhism in the Ea.st, which it continued to be till about the year 700, when, owing to the repeated and destiiictive invasions of the ]\Ialabars, the capital was removed to Bollonania. That city flourished for two centuries ; and after that, dui-ing a long period of disastrous decay, the seat of government was moved hither and tbitlu-r, till the country fell into the hands of the Portuguese and Dutch, and linally succumbed to our power. The city of Anuradhapoora is now totally deserted in the midst of an uninhabited jungle. Its public luiildings must have suffered severely from the circumstances under which it perished, exposed for centuries to the attacks of foreign enemies. Besides this, the rank vegetation of Ceylon has been at work for 1000 years, stripping oif all traces of ydaster ornaments, and splitting the masonry in many places. But the very desolation of its situation has preserved these ancient monuments from other and greater dangers. No bigoted JMoslem has juiUcd them down to build mosques and mtmuments of his own fixitli ;

Chap. 111. CEYLON. 41 iin iiulolcnt. Hindu has allowed their materials to be used for private |)iui)()ses or appropriated as private plunder ; and no English magistrate has yet rendered them available for mending station-roads and bridges. We may be sure, therefore, that these ruins deserve the greatest attention from the student of Buddhist architecture, and that a vast fluid of information may be drawn from them when once they shall have been suflficiently explored and described. For ten centuries Anuradhapoora continued the capital of Ceylon. Alone of all Buddhist cities it retains something like a complete series of the remains of its greatness during that period. We possess, moreover, in the Mahawanso and other Ceylonese sciiptures, a tolerably authentic account of the building of all these monuments, and of the purposes to which they were dedicated. Among the vestiges of former grandeur still to be found at Anuradhapoora, are the ruins of seven dome-shaped topes or dagobas, of one monastery, of a building erected to contain the saci'ed Bo-tree, and several other iiiins and antiquities. Among these is the great mound, called the tomb of the usurper Elaala, but more probably it is a tope erected by the king Dootoogamoni to commemorate the victory over that intiiider which he gained on this spot about the year 161 B.C. As it is now a mere mound, without any distinguishable outline, it will not be again alluded to. Two of the topes are of the largest size known : one, the Abayagiri, was erected 88 b.c. ; its dome is exactly hemispherical, and described wilh a radius of 180 ft., being thus more than 1100 ft. in circumference, and with the base and spire making up a total elevation of 244 ft., which is only 16 ft. less than the traditional height of 120 cubits assigned to it in the Mahawanso.^ It was erected by a king Walagambahu, to commemorate his reconquest of his kingdom from some foreign usurper who had deposed him and occupied his throne for about 16 years. The second tope is the Jetawana, erected by a king Mahasen, A.D. 275. In form and dimensions it is almost identical with the last described, though somewhat more ]5erfect in outline, and a few feet higher, owing probably to its being more modern than its rival. These two were commemorative monuments, and not relic-shrines. Next to these, but far more important from its sacredness, is the Euanwelle tope, erected by king Dootoogamoni, between the years 161 and 137 B.C., over a very imposing collection of relics, of which a full account is given in the 31st chapter of the Mahawanso. Its dimensions are very similar to those of the two last described, but it has been so much defaced, partly by violence, and partly, it seems, from a failui-e of the foundations, that it is not easy to ascertain either its original shape or size. The same king erected another smaller tope, 260 ft. in diameter. It is now known as the Mirisiwellya. Like the last described it is very much ruined, and not particulaily interesting, either from its form or histoiy. The cubit of Ceylon is nearly 2 ft. 3 in.

42 nrnniiisT aim'hitkiti'i^k. Book I. Besiaes these four lar^c buildings there are two considerably smaller ones, known as the Thuparamya and Lanka Ramaya, very similar to one another in size and amingcnient. The first named is lepresontcd in woodcut No. :n. The tope itself, though small and 31. Tliuparamya Tope. From an unpublished litliogrnph by the late James Prinsep. somewhat mined, is of a singularly elegant bcll-shapcd outline. Its diameter and height are nearly the same, between oO ft. and 00 ft. ; and it stands on a platform raised about Oft. from the giouud, on which are arranged three rows of pillars, which form by far the most important architectural ornament of the building. The inner circle stands about 2 ft. from the mound, and the other two about 10 ft. from each other. The pillars themselves arc monoliths 26 ft. in height, of which the lower part, to the height of 9 ft., is left square, each side being about 1 ft. The next divisicm, 14 ft. 6 in. in length, has the angles cut off, as is usual in this style, so as to fonn an octagon ; the two parts being of one piece of gianite. These sustain a capital of the same material, 2 ft. C in. in height. Accounts differ as to the number of the pillars, as Mr. Knighton says there were originally 108 ; ' whereas Capt. Chapman counted 149, and states the original number to have been 184.* This relic-shrine was erected by the celebrated king Devenampiatissa, abo\it 2oO years h.c, to ccjntain the right jawbone of Buddha, which — say the liuddhist chroniclers — descending from the skies, placed itself on the crown of the monarch. As contemi»orary A^nth Asoka, it belongs to the most interesting period of Buddhist history, and is older than anything now existing on the continent of India so far as we at present know ; and there is evciy reason to suppose it ' .1. A. S. B. for March, 1847, p. 218. * TranMctions K. A. S., vol. iii. p. 474, and .'. K. A. S.

CiTAV. III. CKYLON. 43 iu)\v exists as nearly as may be in the form in wliicli it was originally designed, having escaped alteration, and, what is more unusual in a I>iiddliist relic-shrine, having escaped augmentation. When the celebrated Tooth relic was brought hither from India at the beginning of the fourth century, it was placed in a small building erected for the purpose on one of the angles of the platform, instead of being placed, as seems generally to have been the case, in a shrine on its summit, and eventually made the centre of a new and more extended erection. Perhaps it was an unwillingness to disturb the sacred circle of pillars that prevented this being done, or it may have been that the Tooth relic, for some reason we do not now understand, was destined never to bo pei-manently hid from the sight of its adorers. It is certain that it has been accessible during the last two thousand years, and is the only relic of its class that seems to have been similarly preserved and exhibited. The Lanka Eamaya is extremely similar to the last, though considerably more modern, having been erected a.d. 221, and looks of even more recent date than it really is, in conseqiience of a thorough repair it has undergone within the last few years, which has nearly obliterated its more ancient features. There is still another, the Saila tope, within the limit of the city, but so niined that its architectural features are i;ndisting"uishable, though tradition would lead us to suppose it was the oldest in the place, even belonging to a period anterior to the present Buddha. The spot at all events is said to have been hallowed by the presence of the preceding one. Besides these, there are on the hill of Mehentele, a few miles to the north-east of the city, two important relic-shrines : one of the first class erected on its summit to cover a hair that grew on the forehead of Buddha over his left eyebrow. The other, on a shoulder of the hill immediately below this, is of the same class as the Thuparamya ; a small central building suiToimded by concentric rows of granite jiillars, which, as appears to have been the principle of this mode of decoration, rose to half the height of the central mound. There are besides these a great number of topes of various sorts scattered over the plain, but whether any of them are particidarly interesting, either from their architecture or their histoiy, has not been ascertained, nor will be till the place is far more carefully surveyed than it has yet been. There is another ruin at Anuradhajiooi'a, which, if a little more perfect, would be even more interesting than these topes. It now goes by the name of the Maha Lowa Pa^-a, or Great Brazen Monaster}-. We have a full account in the Mahawanso of its erection by the pious king Dootoogamoni (101 B.C.), according to a plan procured from heaven for the purpose, as well as a histoiy of its subsequent destmctiori and rebuildings. When first erected it is said to have been 100 cubits or 225 ft. square, and as high as it was broad ; the height was divided into nine stories, each containing 100 cells for priests, besides halls and other

44 liUDDHIST AHCHITECTUHE. Book 1. iiulispensaljle apartments. Nearly 200 years after its erection (a.d. ;iO) it required considerable repairs, but the first gi-eat disaster occuned in the reij^n of the apostate Mahasena, a.d. 28(3, who is said to luivo destroyed it utterly. It was re-erected by his son, but with only five stories instead of nine, and it never after this regained its pristine magnificence, but gradually fell into decay even before the seat of government was removed to Pollunania. Since that time it has been completely deserted, and all that remains of it now are the 1600 pillars which once supported it. These generally consist of unhewn blocks of gianite about 12 ft. high; some of the central ones are sculptured, and many have been split into two, apparently at the time of the great rebuilding after its destruction by Mahasena ; as it is, they stand now about (3 ft. apart from centre to centre in a compact phalanx, 40 on each face, and covering a space about 250 or 260 ft. each way. On this must have been placed a strong wooden framing, as in the Bui-meso monasteries at the present day — as explained in the next chapter : and the remaining 8 stories rose on this, one above the other, each diminishing as it ascended, so that the building assumed the outline of a pyramid. This, it is true, is not distinctly asserted in the IMahawanso, nor do the remains sufi&ce to prove it. But we have strong CAidencc in favour of this supposition in the arrangement of later l)uil(lings, which there is eveiy reason to believe were erected frum this or similar models. The pjTamidal shape is that adopted to this day in all Buddhist countries. If I am not very miich mistaken, the manystoried Hindu temples in the south of India are literally only copies of such buildings as this. They all assume the pyramidal foiin, and are furnished \\h\i small cells on every story, precisely as we may suppose this to have been.' The name of Brazen was applied to it in consequence of the roof of brass that covered it, and, gilt and ornaniented as it no doubt was, it must have been one of the most s])lendid buildings of the East. It was as high as the topes, and, though not covering quite so much gi'ound, was equal, in cubical contents, to the largest of our English cathedrals, and the body of the building was higher than any of them, omitting of course the spires, which arc mere ornaments. Its form and arrangement will be more clear when we have described, further on, the characteristics of the early Hindu style, which seems almost without doubt to have been copied from this. To us these are the most interesting of the remains of the ancient city, but to a Buddhist tlie greatest and most sacred of the vestiges of the past is the celebrated Bo-tree. This is now reverenced and worsliipj)ed even amidst the desolation in which it stands, and has been worehippcd t»n this spot for more than 2000 years ; and thiis, if not the ' F« Hian, in doscribing the great rock- fabulous mixed with what he says about this cut monasten- of the Deccan as it existed in cdiiice, wliich, bpsidos, he never saw himself; his time — about a.d. 400 — says it had five but it is tlie only one he describes in such destorics; the lower with 500 cells, the next tail, and it points to a construe tion similar to with 4n0. then :5(iO, then 2i>0, and the tipper what I have suggested in the text. — See Foe uiib 1

Chap. III. CEYLON. 45 oldest, is certainly among the most ancient of the idols that still command the adoration of mankind. AV^hcn vVsuka sent his brother Mahindo, and his sister Sanganiitta, to inti'oduce Buddhism into Ceylon, one of the most precions things which they introduced was a branch of the celebrated tree which still grows at Gya.' The branch, so says the legend, spontaneonsly severed itself from the parent stem, and planted itself in a golden vase prepared for its reception. According to the pi'ophecy, it was to be "always green, never growing, nor decaying," and certainly present appearances would go far to confirm such an assertion, for, notwithstanding its age, it is small, and, though healthy, does not seem to increase. Its being evergreen is only a characteristic of its species, the Ficus religiosa ; our acquaintance with it, however, must extend over a longer series of years than it at present does, before we can speak with certainty as to its stationary qualities. It grows from the top of a small pyi-amid, which rises in three terraces, each about 12 ft. in height, the one above and within the other, in the centie of a large square enclosure close by the IMaha liowa Paya. But though the place is large, sacred, and adorned with gates of some pretension, none of its architectural features are such as to require notice here. POLLONARUA. The ruins of Pollonarua, which became the capital of the island on the abandonment of Anuradhapoora in the eighth century, show considerable traces of magnificence and splendour, though of a class very different from that displayed in the older city, and far more resembling the more ornate style of the Hindus than the simpler magnificence of the earlier Buddhists. They are in fact a link between the ancient and modern stjdes of architecture.^ The ruins of this city consist principally of one long straight and terraced street, nearly an English mile in length, bordered on either side by the ruins of temples, houses, tombs, and all the accompaniments of an Eastern city. It terminates at one end in a small rocky hill, in which are cut several temples. These are ornamented with figures of Buddha, one of which is 45 ft. high, and with rich and elaborate carvings on all sides. At the other end of the street is a building represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 32), evidently a tem]-)le, though now unroofed, and diifering singularly in all its aiTangements from the older examples found on the continent of India. At the inner end of it is a statue of Buddha 58 ft. in height. The relic-shrine is placed on one side, as sho^\^l in the view. ' Singularly enough, the natives of Behar son Tennent's work on ' Christianity in Ceyascribe the planting of their Bo-tree to Doo- Ion ;' but they are only picturesque views toogamoni, the pious king of Ceylon. They without plans or dimensioas, not available for mistake the date, however, placing him 414 scientilic ])urposes. They suflice, however, B.C. — See Buchanan Hamilton's Statistics of to sliow how complete is the series of mateBchar, p. 7fi. rials for a liistory ot' Buddhist art to be found ^ The only illustrations that have yet been in this counti'v i)ublished are a few woodcuts in Sir Kmer

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46 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE. IVlOK 1. im^'

CiiAi'. Iir. CEYLON. 47 This temjile i.s built with biick, and coveietl with stucco, aiul, though consequontly vovy inferior both in material and character to the earlier edifices of the same class, is still, from its size and richness, a tine specimen of the style in its decline, and woi-thy to close the history of the art in the island where it had tlourished for twelve i-enturies when this building was erected. We know but little of the great caves of Dambool and others which lie scattered over the island. They ditfer from the Indian cave-temples in being natural caverns slightly enlarged and improved by art, but Avithout having been moulded into architectural copies of buildings, as is always the case on the continent of India. What architecture they do possess is developed on applied facades of masonry, never of the same ago as the caves themselves, and generally moie remarkable for their grotesqueness than their beauty. Besides, the form of these caves being accidental, they want that interest which attaches so strongly to those of India, as illustrating the religions fonus and ceremonies of the Buddhists in early times. Indeed, the only point of interest they now possess seems to consist in their being still used for the celebration of the same rites to which they were originally dedicated 2000 years ago.

48 15UDDH1ST AltClllTECTrRE. Book 1. CHAPTER IV. BUEMAH. CONTENTS. Furms of Bui-mese buildings — Dagobas at Khomadoo — Pegue— llangoon, &c. ilonasteries. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. DATES. I DATES. Rahamam, son of Asoka, begins to reign at I Panya becomes the capital a.d. 1300 I'rome about B.C. 243 Sjiniundri I'rome era established . . . a.d. 76 SunniiWa Riya begins to reign at I'ugan . 107 Uuddhagosa visits Ceylon 386 I'ugan destroyed 1356 Panya and Cliitk;iiiig destroyed, and .\va becomes the capital 1364 Alompra in Monchabo 1752 The kingdom of Bm-mab, lying to the eastward of Bengal, is one of those countries which, like Ceylon, received its religion direct from India, and has retained it to the present hour, although it has long ceased to exist in the countiy that gave it birth. Like all Buddhist countries its authentic annals commence Avith the sovereigns of Central India, who were the contemporaries of Sakya Muni, the founder of the foith. There is no record even of names of native kings till we come to the all-powerful and all-pei"\'ading name of Asoka. He sent his son or grandson to this countiy to introduce the new faith, and to establish a regular sovereignty on the banks of the Trrawaddy, which seems at that time to have been verj' thinly peojiled by nomade and half-civilised tribes. The new king fixed his residence at Prome about the year 243 B.C., and that city continued the capital of the kingdom for about three centuries and a half. About a.d. 107 the seat of government was removed farther up the river to Pugan, which continued to be the cajjitul for twelve centui'ies, when, in consequence, it is said, of some l)rophecy or evil omens, it was removed still farther up the river near its south-eastern bend, where thi-ee distinct cities, Chatkaing, Ava, and Amerapoora, situated near to one another, have enjoyed with frequent changes the distinction of being the royal residence. At Prome we have no knowledge of any buildings of considerable antiquity or otherwise remaikable. The remains of Pugan cover a space extending 10 or 12 miles along the river and to a depth of 4 or 5 miles inward. Our annics, during the war in 182.'>. ptissed and repassed through tliL' jilaee, and it is

Chap. IV. liUl^MKSE l'A(J()DAS. 4articul;irs from wliioh we can discover what peculiar characteristics Buddhism assumed in this country, or what degree of civilisation the Burmese had reached during the long period that this city maintained itself as ca|)ital of tlie empire. From such mateiials as are available we collect that the city contains no ancient example of the great dome-like topes which form such remarkable objects in India and Ceylon. Some there are of considerable size, but they are modern, whereas the ancient ones are, if circular, of a tower-like form, probably more like those in Afghanistan than any others we are acquainted with. But the greater number of the religious edifices here seem to have been square in plan, Avith porticos and central chambers, and teiTuinating upwards in octagonal or polygonal straight-lined pyramids or spu-es. It is not improbable that these buildings are monasteries with relic-shrines included in theiiprecincts. It will be remembered that in the more modern caves at Ajunta and elsewhere the monastery had come to contain a chapel and place of worship in some measure independent of the temple to which it was originally subordinate.' The same seems to have been the case here, but carried to a greater extent. These buildings, therefore, being a distinct class from any of those hitherto described, may be properly called pagodas, by which name they are generally known. One feature remarked by Colonel Symes,^ and shown in several drawings, published and unpublished, is worthy of observation, which is the existence in these ruins of pointed arches of the Gothic form, coupled with vaidted apartments. This presents a peculiarity unknown elsewhere in Buddhist architecture, or indeed in any Indian style of any age : but until we know the epoch of the buildings in which these arches are ft)und, it is needless speculating on their existence, or guessing at the mode of their introduction. At the same time, if they are old, which it is generally supposed they are, they form the most interesting features of these edifices. In the modern caintals of Burmah there are no religious edifices, of brick or stone, remarkable either fjr theii" size or beauty. It will be well therefore to confine what further remarks are to be made on the pagodas of the country to those specimens which seem to be the finest and best that the land possesses. The first of these, called Khomadoo, is situated on the opposite bank of the Irrawaddy from Ava, and a short distance loAver down. It is described both by Symes^ and Crawford.'' According to the latter authority it is 100 ft. 9 in. high, and surmounted by a spii'e 22 ft. in height and 15 in diameter; the circumference of its base is 9-14 ft., and it is suii'ounded by a stockade of dwarf pillars of sandstone, about 5 ft. ' Sno p. 31. ^ Knibassy to the Kingdom of Ava, vol. - Kmliassy In (hr K'iiigilinn of Ava. iii. \k 209. I,oiidon, ISou. VcA. ii. ji. '247. •> liinbassy to Ava, 4to. edit. p. 200. E

60 BUDDHIST AKCHITECTURE. Book 1. in hei^lit and 802 in niiml)or. Its fonn is nearly that of a peifect licmis])lu're. From these particulars it is evident that it is extremely simibir to the tirrator topes of Aiinr;iMrmese buildings of this class are, by an iron sjiire richly gilt. Another peculiarity is strongly indicative of its modem date ; it is that, instead of a double or triple range of jiillars surrounding it« base, we have a double range of small models of pagodas, a mode of omamontation that subsequently became typical in Hindu architecture ; their temples and satires being covered and indeed composed of innumerable models of themselves, clustered together so as to make up a whole. As before remarked, something of the same sort occurs in Eoman art, where every window and opening is surmounted by a pediment or miniature temple end, and in Gothic art, where a great spire is surrounded by piiniacles or spirelets ; but in the.se stj'les it is never carried to the excess to which it goes in Ilindii art. In this instance it is interesting as being one of the earliest attempts at this cla,ss of decoration. The building stands on two terraces, the lower one about 10 ft. high, and 1301 ft. square ; the upper one, 20 ft. in height, is 684 ft. sfjuare ; from the centre of it rises the pagoda, the diameter of whose base is •.\9h ft. The small pagodas are 27 ft. high, and 108 or 110 in number: while the great pagoda itself rises to ihv height of .'{:51 ft. aV)ove its terrace, or MM ft. above the country, thus reaching a height nearly equal to that of St. Paul's Cathedral; while the side of the upper terrace is only 83 ft. less than ^hat of the great Pyramid. Tradition ascribes its commencement to two nierchants, who raised it to thi; height of 12 cidnta at an age slightly subsequent to that of ' Literally " Golden great god.'

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CiiAP. TV. BURMESE PAGODAS. al I>ii(l(lha himself. Successive kings of Pegiie added to this from lime to tiiiu', till at liist it assumed its ])resent form, most probably about tluve or four ceiitiirics ag;o. :ix Shoeraadoo Pagoda, I'egue. From Col. Symes Embassy tn Ava. 3+. Half-plan of Shoemadoo Pagoda. From Col. Syines' Embassy to Ava. Scale 100 ff. to i in. The third pagoda in importance, so far as Ave know, is the more generally knoAvn Shoedagong pagoda at Eangoon, a bnilding veiy similar in dimensions to the last, and by no means nnlike it. except

.")2 BUDDHIST AHClHTEC'il'KK. Book I. that the outline of the biise is more cut ti]i, aiKl the f>i)ire more atteiniatecl — both signs of a more modem date. Its base is even more crowded by littk' tcin]d('t.s than that at I'egne, and it is a few feet k)\ver. There is, however, no essential diiference between the two, and it is jirincipally interesting as leading us one step further in tlie series from the solid hemispherical mound to the thin spire, whi

s assume, till they lose all but a traditional rescnddance to the buildings wliieh were tlie o)"iginals from wliieli they sprang. This pagoda, like all the more important ones, is fabled to have been commenced about 2300 years ago, or about the era of liuddha himself: its sanctity, however, is owing to its containing relics, not only of the last Buddlia, but also of his three predecessors — Buddha liaving vouchsafed eight hairs of his head to two merchants, on the iniderstanding that they were to be enshrined with the relics of the three fonner Buddhas, wdiere and when found.' After numerous miraculous indications, on this s2")ot were discovered the staff of Kakusanda, believed to have lived some 300Q years before Christ, the water-dipper of Konagamma, and the bathing-garment of Kasya]ia, which, with the eight hairs . above-mentioned, are enshrined within this great pagoda.* Originally, however, notwitlistanding the value of its de]iosit, the building was small, and it is probably not more than a centuiy since it assinned its present form. An immense number of smaller jiagodas suiTOiuid this larger oni% of all sizes, from 30 ft. in height to 200 ft., and even more. There is scarcely a village in the country that does not ]>ossess one or two, and in all the moi"e im])ortant to^\^ls they are numbered by hundreds ; so that they may almost be said to be innumerable in this country'. They are almost all quite modem, and so similar one to another as not to ini^rit any distinct or separate mention. They indicate, however, a degree of increasing Avealth and power in the nation, from the cai'liest times to the ])resent day, and an increasing ])revalence of the Ihuldhistical system. This is a direct contrast to the history of Ceylon, whose hour of greatest glory was in the earlier centuries of the Christian i-ra, and was ])assing aAvay more than 1000 years ago, at a time when tlie architectural history of Burmah first da^^^ls ujion us. Thus the buildings of (me country are an exact continuation to those of the other, and together they present a series of examples of the same class ranging over more than 2000 years, reckoning from the oldest topes in Ceylon to the most modern in T'urniah. MoXASTKRIES. As I'urmah is a country in which the monastic system of Buddhism flourishes at the present day to the fullest extent, if we had some information regarding its monasteries, or Monms as they are called, it ' ."^I'c p. 4. sjnon, liy the Rev. G. H. Hough. — Asiatic; * See nccoiint of tlie Oical Hill at ILm- Kisraiches, vol. xiv. p. 27t>.

ClIAl'. IV BURMESE MONASTKIMKS. might enable ii8 to uii(ler.staiul tlic arrangement of the okler ones. The travellers who have visited the country have been silent on the subject, ]irinri])ally becanso the monasteries are, in almost all instances, less iiiagnilicent than the pagodas to which they are attached, and are, with scarcely an exception, built of wood — a practice destructive of their architectural character, and also depriving them wholly of that monuniental appearance of stability which is so essential to true architectural expression. This peculiarity of being of wood is not confined to the monasteries ; all residences, from that of the poorest peasant to the palace of the king, having been constrncted from time immemorial of this ])erishable material. The custom has now passed into a law, that no (jne shall have the power of erecting buildings of stone or brick, except it be the king himself, or the edifices be of a purely religious character. Nor is this exception taken advantage of, for the king's palace itself is as essentially a wooden erection as the dwelling of any of his subjects. It is, however, not the less magnificent on this account — rather, perhaps, more so — immense sums being spent on the most elaborate carvings, and the whole being lacquered, painted, and gilt, to an extent that we have no conception of in our more sober clime. The same profuse decorations are bestowed upon the monasteries, one of which is represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 35), showing 35. Burmese Kioum. From Col. Syinos' Embassy to Ava. a building in which all the defects arising from the use of so easily carved a material are carried to excess. If the colouring and gildingcould be added, it would represent a building such as the West never saw, and, let us hope, never will see; for, however dazzling its s]dendour, such bai'baric magnificence is worthy only of a half-civilized race.

54 BUDDHIST AKCHITKCTrUH. Book I. Besides, however, its ovni merits, as sliowing the extent of richness to whicli this ephemeral style of art may be canied, the hiiildin-- is interesting as explaininj; how tlie DJOO columns of the Maha Lowa I'uya of Teylon ' supix.ited the lower floor

Cii.u'. V. JAVA. CHAPTER V. J A V A. CONTENTS. Buildiugs at Boro Buddor — Temples at Brambauaui. Thk island of Java is another of those countries which }eceived their ci^'ilisation and their arts direct from the continent of India, but by a diiferent route from that by which they passed into Ceylon and Burmah. Neither in the island, nor on the continent of India, are any veiy distinct evidences found of the early colonisation of this country, but it seems most probable that it took place in the first centuiy of the Christian era. At that time the west of India was in a state of continuous ferment in consequence of the struggle between the Brahmins and the Buddhists, the latter of AA^hum seem then to have gained the ascendancy under King Salivahana, who established the Saka era in the year 76 or 78 a.d., which is still used as the epochal date in Java, and these events are the earliest to which their traditions refer. Among the Javanese traditions we find no traces of the sovereigns uf central India, and neither does Asoka mention this island as one of the countries to which he sent missionaries, noi" does his name appear in any of the records collected by Sir Stamford Ivafflcs or Mr. Crawford, who are almost our only authorities on the subject. On the conti'arv, the earlier heroes of the jMahabharat are the tniditional rulers of the land, and all their myths are derived from Ilintlu and not from Buddhist sources. Hence the first colonists seem not to have been BudJhisis, ]m\ Hindus from Guzerat, or the west of India, driven to seek in the islands of the east the enjoyment of that I'eligion from which they were debaiTcd b}^ the ascendancy of their livals in theii- native land. For some centuries after this date even the tiaditional annals are silent as to any important events, or the foundation of any great cities on the island, though we gather from theni, and from the more certain testimony of Fa Hian, who ■visited the island a.d. 418 in sailing Irom Ceylon, that the intercourse was frequent between the Brahmanical possessors of both countries at this eai'ly ])eriod ; and wi- liave also his certain testimony that in those days there were no Buddhists in the country, though many Brahmins from India.' Koe Koue Ki, p. 360.

56 r.LDDillST ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. Tlio ITindn kingdom of Java seems never to have extended into the wostcni jiart of tl)e island. In tlie earliest times it was confined to the di-stritt of Matarem. near the centre, on the southern side. Here the two gi'catest and most ancient groups of ruins are situated, those of Brambanara and of Boro Buddor, or the Great Buddha. We do not know even now when Buddhism was introduced ; probably not till the followers of that sect were expelled from the continent of India in the 10th or 12th century of our era, when they in their turn took refuge from the persecution of the Brahmins, in that insular asylum which ten centuries before the Hindus had sought, to avoid their intolerance and bigotiy. Certain it is that the most splendid temple fif the I»uddhists in Java, that of Boro Buddor, is assigned, both by tradition and b}' the evidence of its style, to the 14th century, and is indeed the onl}' building of a decidedly Buddhist character to be found on the island. 'o Boro BuDnon. This great temple fonns, if not the purest and most gi-aceful, certainly the most curious and elaborate monument of the style fountl in this or any other country. Its plan and arrangements will Ijc best understood from the woodcuts. No. 36, representing half the plan of the monument — the other half being exactly similar has been omitted — No. 37, being a section through one half, and an elevation of the other half of the building, slightly reduced from the usual scale of 50 ft. to one inch; and No. 38, a section and elevation of one of the small domes surrounding the great one. From the plan or elevation it "will be seen that it is a nine-storied pyramid of a square form, measuring about 400 ft. across. The five lower stories consist of narrow terraces running round the building, rising on an average about 8 ft. the one above the other. ( )n their outer edge is a range of buildings of tlie most various and fantastic outline, covered with small spires and cupolas of various shapes and forms, the principal ones covering 436 niches, occupied by as many statues of lUuldha as large as life, seated in the usual attitude with his legs crossed. Between each of these are one or two bas-reliefs representing the god in the same attitude, besides architectural ornaments and cai-v-ings of all sorts. lielow these on the lower story is an innnense bas-relief ninning round the whole building, and consequently KiOOft. long, representing scenes from the life of Buddha and religions subjects. These are all on the outside, but the inner faces of the five ranges of buildings are even more ]irofusely and more minutely' omaniented with bassi-relievi, and seated figures, and architectural ornaments can-ied to an extent unrivalled, so far as 1 know, by an}- either building in any part of the world. Above and within the upper square ten-ace are three circular ones, the outer omamented Avith 32, the next with 24, and the upper with 16 small domes, each containing (as shown in woodcut No. 38) a seated statue of Buddha, which can be seen through the open woik of their

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ClIAl'. V. JAVA. o7 iri H /ft s ■■"^t a V^ o. -^ CS ..

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58 UUDDHIST Al{CIHTECTliRE. |{n„K I. rtKifs. Tlio wh()l(i is isnnnomitcd l)_v what must be considered us the pjij^uda itself (woodcut No. .'{'J), which is now empty, it« centre l)eini;" oeemtied only by a sunken chamber 10 ft. deep, meant originally no doubt to contain the relic for which this splendid temj)le was erected. a^. Scctiuii uf uiR' ol' Ibe smaller domes at 39. Klevatinn of principal Jome at Uoro Huildur. Boro Buddor. From Sir S. Ilaaics History of Java. On loolvint; at this gorgeous edifice the first thing that strikes the beholder is the singular arrangement of its five lower terraces. I have myself no doubt wliatever but that they are copied from and re})rcsent the terraces of such a monastery as the Maha Lowa Paya already described ;' that in the originals these niches, occupied by the cross-legged figures, wcj-e .the entrances to cells, whose Avails were painted, perhaps sculptured, as these are. In India, as we shall ]iresently see, the Jains, who were the successors of the liuddhists, carried this pnictice to a considerable extent. Thc}^ continue to surround their court-yards with cells, but lodge a cross-legged divinity in each instead vf a shaven priest. Indeed, the whole of the arrangements of the lower stories of this l)uilding seem to be intelligible onlj^ on the supposition of its being built on the model of some monastery, extended beyond anything we know tif that class, and altered so as to be a mere copy of the abodes of piiests instead of their actual residence. The arrangement of the upper stoiy will be easily undei-stood by refen-ing to the description of the Shoemadoo at Pegue.* The arrangement is tlie same, except that there are three ranges of smaller temples suiTounding the larg(;r one instead of two. We here observe an analogy to the three ranges of pillars that surround the base of the Thujia li'amaya and other topes at Ceylon. The buildijig is therefore not only a compound of a monastery with a tope, such as j)robably existed in India, but it is so modern. an

CiiAi'. V. JAVA. :)9 example in India, for in Java iinfortnnately ti certain Malay eleiuijnt has been su]icrinduced, which prevents our recognisins;' at once all the parts, and it does not eonseipiently furnish us with that aniounl nf historic deduction which a purer example would afford. We cannot, however, doubt tliat it is really Buddhist, oi- at least a transition specimen, unlike anything else we are a('(]uainted with in its details, and unsurpassed, so far as 1 know, in the amount of scidptured decoration that is lavished on every part of it. Bhambanam. Not far from the ruins of Boro Buddor are situated the temjiles (jf Branibanam, certainly one of the most extraordinary gi-oups of buildings of its class, and very unlike anything we now find in India, though there can scarcely be a doubt but that the whole is derived from an Indian original now lost. The great temple is a square building above 45 ft. square, and Toft. high, terminating upwards in an octagonal straight-lined pyramid. On each face of this is a smaller temple "of similar design joined to the gi'eat one by corridors ; the whole five thus constituting a cnicifoim building. It is raised upon a richly ornamented square base. One of the smaller temples serves as an entrance-porch. The building itself is very curiously and richly ornamented with sculpture, but the most remarkable feature of the whole group is the multitude of smaller temples which surround the central one, 239 in number. Immediately beyond the square terrace which supports the central temple stand 28 of these, forming a square of 8 on each side, counting the angular ones both ways. Beyond these, at a distance of 35 ft., is the second square, 44 in number ; between this and the next row is a wide space of above 80 ft., in which only (5 temples are situated, two in the centre of the north and south faces, and one on each of the others. The two outer rows of temples are situated close to one another, back to back, and are 1(50 in number, each face of the square they form being about 525 ft. All these 239 temples are similar to one another, about 12ft. square at the base, and 22 ft. high,' all richly carved and ornamented, and in every one is a small square cell, in which was originally ])laced a cross-legged figure, probably of one of the Jaina saints, though the drawings which have been hitherto published do not enable us to determine whom they represent — ^the persons who made them not being aware of the distinction between Buddhist and Jaina images. The arrangement of this great group will be better understood from the woodcut on the next page, being the plan of a smaller one in the immediate neighboin-hood, surrounded by only 1(5 subsidiary tenq)les instead of 239, and the central one having only one cell instead tif five. ' The iiifonnatiou here given is taken from believo, from the seak.-- in the oriniual diawSir Stamford Raffles' History of Java, sccoiiil iii^js — wliich 1 have before me — lieiiiLj in edition, vol. ii. p. 17 et scq. His phuis, lUifinland rdods, which are not always eoiihowever, do not quite agree with the mea- vcitcd into I'hiij,iish feet, siirements in the text, a mistake arising, 1

t;o lU'nDIIIST AHCHITKCTl'UE. Book I. Q m p Q a m m D I B Q a □ 40. Small Temple at Urnmbanani. From a drawing nt the India House. No scale. In other rcRiiocts tlic iUTan«;;oment is the same, and it is preferable for the pnq)ose of ilhistration, as it immediately i-eminds us of the arrangement of the eells that surround the Buddliist cave-Viharas at Ajunta ' and elsewhere, already described ; and it seems hardly doubtful but that this Avas the aiTangement of the cells of the priesthood in the original buildings in India, which, when copied in the rock, took the form we now find. It is tnie these cells, instead of being occupied by henuits, are either empty or have a statue in them, but, as wiU. presently be showTi, this was usual in India with the Jains, to whose religion the temples at Brambanam probably belong. '^riie date given to these monuments by the natives is about the 9th or lOth century, at which time the Jains were making gi-eat progi-ess at Giizerat and the western parts of India ; and if the traditions are to be relied upon, which bring the Hindu colonists of Java from that quarter, it is almost cei'tain that they would have brought that religion with them. If the age, hoAvever, that is assigned to them be correct, and I sec no reason to doubt it, they are specimens of an earlier date and form than anything wo noAv find in India, and less removed from the old Buddhist type than anything that now remains there. The value of these examples Avill be better understood when we come to examine the Hindu and Jaina styles of architecture, the elements of which, though considerably altered here by local ])ceuliarities, are still sufficiently distinct to enable us to understand what Avithout them would be nearly unintelligible. A good local history of -Javanese architecture — which was nobly commenced by Sir Stamford lialfles — would be curious and higldy instructive if fully carried out ; and ample materials exist for writing it, though much requires yet to be done before so extensive a subject can be rendered even partially intelligible. It is rendered more difficult from the apparent inversion that took place in the order of the stylus ; the Jaina temples of Brambanam preceding the Buddhist

Chap. Vi. TllllU-yr AND NEPAL. 61 CHAPTER VI. THIBET AND NEPAL. CONTENTS. Monastery of Bouddha La — Temples in Nepal. It wonUl be a matter of the deepest interest if we were able to compile a satisfactory account of the Buddhist style in Thibet, for it is there that Buddhism exists in its greatest purity at the pi'esent moment, and there only is it entirely and essentially a part of the system of the people. We would gladly therefore compare the existing state of things in Thibet with our accounts of India in the days of the supremacy of the same religion. The jealousy of the Chinese, however, who are now supreme over that nation of priests, prevents free access to the country, and those who have penetrated beyond its forbidden barriers have either done so in the disguise of mendicants, and consequently neither dared to draw nor examine minutely what they saw, or have had little taste for portraying what was unintelligible, and consequently considered of very little interest.' So far as can be made out from such narratives as we have, there does not seem to be in Thibet a single relic-shrine remarkable either for its sanctity or its size, nor does relic-worship seem to be the object of either the architecture or the religious worship. But as no country in the world possesses a larger body of priests in proportion to its population, and as all these are vowed to celibacy and live together, their monasteries are more extensive than any we know of elsewhere — some containing 2000 or 3000 lamas, some, if we may trust M. Hue, as many as 15,000.^ The monasteries do not seem to be l)uilt with any regularity, or to be grouped into combinations of any architectural pretensions, but to consist of long streets of cells, most of which surroiuid small court-yards, three or four on each side, and sometimes two or even three stories high ; generally, i"»erhai)S always, with a small shrine or altar in the centre. The monastery of Bouddha La, outside the city of Lassa, where the Delai Lama resides, seems to be of more magnificence than all the rest — the centre being occupied by a building four stories high, crowaied by a dome (making the • Captain Turner, it is true, who was sent monuments wliicli is tlie suliject of our jireto Teeslioo Loniboo bv Wanen Ilastinsjs, lias sent inquiry. published witli his interesting; narrative a ^ Voyage dans h' 'i'hib. 289. number of very faithful views of wliat lie saw, 'i'ho monasteiy refeired to is that of !

62 BUDDIITST ARCniTECTUl?E. Book T. fifth) covered entirely with sheets of gold, rjithor perhaps merely gilt, and surrounded by a peristyle of coliunns, which are gilt also. Ai-ound this central i^alace are grouped a number of smaller ones, where the inferior mciiibcis of this great ceclesiastical order reside ; but of all this it is difficult to form a distinct idea without some better drawings than the native ones which are at present alone available. The Delai Lama, who resides in this palace, is believed bj' the Thibetans to be the living incarnation of the Deity, and in consequence is the ])rincipal, if not tlu- only, object of worship in Lassa, though there are four or five subordinate incarnations in diiferent parts of Thil)et and Mongolia, who, though inferior to this one, are still objects of woisliip in the ])laces where they reside, and by particular sect« of r.n.lilhists. 41. Nepalesc Koslliakar. No scalo. It is tliis worship of a living rather than of a dead deity that seems to !)»' the ]irincipal cause of llic diti'erence of the architectural fonns of India and Thibet. In the countries we have hithei-to been deseribiiig no actual incarnation of the Deity is believed to have taken place since tlio death of Sakya Muni, though the spirit of God has descended on many s;iints and holy men ; in India therefore they have been ccmtent tt> worshiji images of the

CiiAi-. VI. THIBET AND NEPAL. (J.i worship would be ab.siiiil ; no relic of a still living god can exist, nor is the senihlaufc or ilu- nu'inory of any past manifestation tlK)Uglit worth preserving. ^1 ])riori, therefore, we should scarcely look liere for the same class of sacred edifices as we find in India or Ceylon. Some smaller relic-shrines, however, do exist, at least in Nepal, hut scarcely differing in any essential point from those in India ; and we have no representations nor measiu-ements of those which have been described, (hie class of temple is fomid in Nepal which deserves mention ; it is called Kosthahar,^ and consists of a square base containing a cell intended to be occupied by a statue like those at Brambanam in .lava, and is crowned by what seems to be a copy of a tope with its t(>rminal. One is represented in woodcut No. 41, not so much on account of any merit of its own, but as explaining a form of Hindu ai-chitecture afterwards common, and also as throAving light on some of the buildings just described. The temple of Boro Buddor, for instance, is nothing more — on an immensely exaggerated scale — than such a compound temple as this ; cells that were originally residences turned into image-places, and the relic shrine become a mere crowniing ornament. When speaking of Hindu architecture we shall understand the full significance of the change. The remaining coimtries in which Buddhist architecture has been or is practised are China and Japan. With regard to these it will bo more convenient to speak of their Buddhist architecture when we speak of their art in general ; for they have so altered the style, and so completely adapted it to their ovni peculiar idiosyncracy, that it is almost impossible to recognise the original in the copy, and the two styles have become so difterent that little is gained bj^ placing them in juxtaposition. ' Soe Trnns. Iloynl As. Soc., vol. ii. p. v. ; and Trans. A. S. B., vol. xvi. )>. 44'2.

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(U BUDDHIST AKCIirPKCTUllE. liooK CHAPTER VII. TliANSlTIONAL STYLES AND CONCLUDING KKMAKKS. CONTENTS. Katbs of Mahavellipore — General Remarks on Buddhist Architecture. T5i:i-(iitK leaving the subject of Biiddliist iircliitocture there is one further illustration which it A\all be Avell to quote, not only as throwing light on what has been said, but also as preparing the way for what is to follow. On the Coromandel coast, some way south of Madras, and near the village of Sadras, i.s a spot well known to Indian anticiuaries by the name of .Maha-Balipoora^n, or, more properly, Mahavellipore; familiar also to English readers from the use Southey makes of it and its ti-adition in his 'Curse of Kehama.' Near this spot nms a long low ridge i>f granite hills, the highest part rising, perhaps, 100 ft. from the level of the ])lain. In these hills some half-dozen caves have been excavated, and several others commenced, some as excavations, others as monoliths.' Between the hill and the sea-shore seven masses of granite protnide from the sands, which have been carved by the Hindus, probably about 1300 A.n. The three principal of these are represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 42). It is evident that the object on the right imitates a Buddhist monastery of five stories. The lower story is wholly occupied by a gi-eat square hall ; the three next stories possess central halls, diminishing in size according to thenposition, and surrounded by cells on the out.side ; the ui)per one is crowned by a dome, or rather such a dome-fonned tennination as crowns the Nepalese temple, woodcut No. 4 1 . Altogether the building seems to represent, with gi'cat exactness, all that we know and all that we read of the I'uddhist monasteiies. Nor is this a mere accidental coincidence. The time at which it was executed was very little removed fn.m that of Buddhism in this part of India. Its being cut in the rock is obviously a iieculiarity of that religion. There is little or none of the extravagance of later Hindu styles in the sculiituros. We must remember, too, that neither the -lains nor the Hindus introduced ' The host arcomit of this spot nmi its an- Tndin by the aiithoi-. Thoyaro also (h'snibed fir. r.abiii.,'lon in by Messrs. Clianibors and lioMiiif^liani, Trans, vol. ii. of tlic Tnins. H. A. S. Si-o also A. S. H., an.l niontionid by Mrs. (iraliam, llhistiiitions of tlie Kock-cut Temples of Bishop Hcber, and othei-s.

Chai'. VII. TRANSITIONAL STYLES. 65 anytliiiig like a new stylo i)f architectTire. They adapted the Buddhist stylo to their o^vn pur[)OSOS, and I have no doubt that this is a very close copy of a five-storiod Buddhist monastery, used as a temple. 42. llaths, Mahavellipore. From a skelcli bj- tlie Author. What confirms this view of the case is, that the next building, the central one in front, is the only representation I know in India of such a temple as those cut in the rock at Ajunta and elsewhere. The front, — turned from the spectator in the view — is exactly the front of one of the more modern Chaitya caves in the Bombay presidency ; and we see here the rounded apsidal end — nowhere else lepresented that I am aware of — with the ornaments, Avhich may in all instances have relieved its monotony. The side aisle is here seen to be open externally, which is not the case in the caves hitherto explored, though it probably was so in biiildings ; but it woiild evidently be impossible to represent this feature in the rock. There is also an additional story in this case, besides the ranges of cells over each of the aisles, which we have no reason to suppose existed in the older examples. But in this, as in all more modem structures of this class, we find considerable confusion between the forms belonging to the temple and those of the monastery. This is no more than might be expected when we consider that the original purposes to which those forms weie adapted had ceased to exist, and that in these late copies what Avere originally essential constructive necessities have become mere ornamental appendages. The third building, behind the one last described, c\idently belongs to the same system ; nothing like it exists structurally, so far as I know, in the south of India ; though in the north there is a class of oblong F

66 BUDDHIST AUCIIITECTURE. Book I. temi^les with pointed roofs, wlii(;h may be derived from the same ongiual, and all the ji^ateways in the south have a similar tenuination. There can be little doubt that it is a copy of a variety of the Buddhist temple or C/uiiti/n, of which we have no exact re])resentation in the caves. It is probable that this is an imitation of a built Buddhist temple, for it is by no means certain that those which stood alone and were capable of receiving light from all sides would have the apse, which all the rock-cut examples have. Althougii these Kaths, as they are called locally, are comparatively modern, and belong to a diiferent faith, they certainly constitute the best representutions now known of the forms of the Buddhist buildings described in Chapter II., and make their external forms more intelligible to us than they could otherwise be made from the more internal copies of them which alone we possess in the rock-cut exami)les. There are no essential differences which cannot be accounted for by the consideration that the sacred caves of the Buddhists Avcre designed for a well-Tuiderstood pui-pose — the Chnityas as tem])lcs, the Viharas as residences— which was the invariable nile in Buddhist times. \\ hen their successors, the Hindus, began to follow their example, they copied blindly and unmeaningly. AVhen we come to speak of the architecture of the south of India, it will be seen how completely this view of the matter explains many points in the architecture which witlKuit this would be perfectly unintelligible. The Raths are transition specimens in fiict, and, as such, link the two styles together, the one serving to explain the peculiarities of the other. In the preceding pages all the principal examples of the Biuldhist style of architecture which are at present known to us have been noticed, and the style traced, as far as possilile, from its origin to the present day. The examples at the time of its greatest brilliancy are too few and too imperfect to enable us to pass a distinct judgment on its merits as a style of art; but, even if ciiticised accordmg to the most rigid ndes, it will not be found deficient m beauties, though these are of an order peculiarly its own. The gi'cat halls, when perfect, must have possessed all the beauties of the choirs of (christian ba.silicas, which they so much resemble, and besides had the merit of a far more perfect mode of lighting, by the one great opening over the entrance, placed exactly where it should be, instead of a number of small windows scattered over the building wherever the constructive necessities of the design would admit of their being inserted. The great domical topes also, 200 or 300 ft. in diameter, when perfect and enriched with all the ornaments we know they possessed, doul)tless displayed that beauty of outline Avhich we admire ^o much in the Pantheon and some of our modern churches. Their imjxising size and general effect may be judged of from obsei'A'ing that the external diameters of the great topes at Anuradhapuora were 3(30 ft., while that of St. Peter's at Rome is only half as great. Of the monasteries and residences of the kings and people we have even less means of judging, but it is not easy to speak too highly of

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Chap. VII. TRANSITIONAL STYLES. 67 some of the details iiiid of the general effect of the architectural arrangements. They are hold and elegant, and singularly well adapted to the purpose for which they were designed. AVhatevor douht there may be of the merit of IJuddhist monuments as works of art, there can be none of their great historical value ; for of the styles still practised it is the oldest, having been constantly in use for more than 2000 years; and it is the style of a religion which cYon at the present hour, when its greatest gloiy has passed away, still i-eckons among its votari(is, if not a gi'eater, at least as great a number of followers as any religion now existing on the face of the globe.

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68 .TAIXA .AlJCIIlTECTUnK. IVx.k I. CHAPTER VIII. JAIN A. CONTENTS. Definition of Jainism -- Temples ou Mount Abu — Origin of Domes — Domes of Jain.i and Buddhists — Temples of Somnatb — Cliandravati and Sadree — Towers at Chittore. CUnOSOLOGY. HATES. I DATK.-s. I'arswiuiaih, JSrd Tiilhaiikar aliout . . n.c. 800 INIunja of Ougein a.d. 933 Jlali;iviru,24lliaiiiUa.sl Tirlluinkar^toU'm- ] Blioja of Ougein, abovit 1000 porary and precoptor of GauLama liiul- ; Kuniara I'ala of fiuzerat tonvcrti'd . . 1174 dlia), died about 600 Amogavcrslia, King of Conjevernm : revival of Jaina religion by Jiiia Sena Acbarya . . . . . . . 9th century a.i>. Temples on Mount Abu .... 1032 to 1231 IChonibo Hana of Slerwar, built temple at Sadree, and pillar at Chittore . . 1418 Udaya Sinh, third sack of Chittore by Akbar 1580 If there be difficulty in explaining the peculiarities of Buddliist ai-chitecture, from the ignorance that necessarily exists regarding tlie form of a leligion of which so little has hitlierto been jtublishcd in this country, there is even more when we come to speak of the Jaina religion. For this we have no materials except occasional jjapers in the Transactions of learned societies; and even that information is so scanty, and the results so inconclusive, that it is almost impossible to make out eitlier the nature or origin of the religion. It is certain tliat it rose to importance only on the decline of Buddhism ; and that it in many respects resembles that religion. Still the Jains entirely reject and ignore the prophet who gave his name to Buddhism, and who impressed on that religion its present form and character a« distinctly as Mahomet gave its character to the religion that bears his name. llie Jains reject entirely Sakya Sinha and his* doctrines, but worship 24 saints, or Tirthaiikars as they are called, who are said to have lived in India, succeeding to (me another at considci'able and almost fabulous intervals. The list closes with I'arswanath and ]\Iahavira : the last of whom is admitted by both sects to have been the preceptor and friend of liuddha, dying about f the I'lahniinii-al religi

Chap. VITT, 'PEMrLES. Hit with it, but of this old tintecetlcnt Buddhism. In process of time his religion i)ovished of innate decay, sinking under the burthen of ils own immense and overgi-own priesthood. An attempt was then made to restore the old faitli, by reviving the pre-existing worthies, and totally iffnorina' the reform and its consequent monasticism, and the result of this revival was Jainism. The reform was attempted, however, at an age wdien the purer traditions of the old faith nniist have been citlier wholly lost or very much obscuied, and when Hinduism was competing for the favour of the vulgar to an extent it was impossible to overlook. It became in consequence not a purer and more exalted faith, but a mixture of superstition and idolatry, such as Buddhism had never sunk into in its most degraded days. Still it got rid of the priesthood, and of the unintelligible mass of metaphysical and other treatises which crushed that religion ; and, in consequence, it still flourishes side by side with Hinduism in most parts of India, while Buddhism is wholly extinct in the land where it first w^as propagated. The principal seats of the Jains at the present time are either in Guzerat or in the Mysore, where it is said libraries exist, which if explored would throw much light on the subject. This is mere speculation, and till the books are seen must remain so ; but there does exist, in both these and the surrounding countries, a numerous class of Jaina temples, and other buildings, which, if properly examined, would settle all the disputed points of their history, as far as they belons: to historical times. So little, however, is knovvoi of these buildings, that no historical deductions can be obtained from them, and, so far from their lending any light to the subject, we do not even know the history of the style itself, but must be content with describing the architecture as we find it at the culminating point of its perfection, and the most brilliant period of Jaina history, about the 1 1th or 1 2th century of our era. It seems at this period to have stood between declining Buddhism on the one hand, and rising Hinduism on the other, the temporary mistress of the continent of India, extending its influence from Guzerat, its principal seat, to Delhi on the one hand, and to Cape Comorin on the other. Thus it remained till the Indians were robbed of their independence by their Mahometan invaders, when they lost even this purer faith, and sank by degrees into the depth of that monstrous superstition known at present as the Hindu religion. The oldest Jaina monuments now known to exist are probably those about Janaghur in Guzerat. The temple at Somnath and some of those about Ahmedabad appear to be of considerable antiquity; none of these, however, have yet been visited by any one who knew how to distinguish between what is old and what is new, or who could even ascribe to each religion what faii-l}" belonged to it. Sucli classification must therefore be reserved for future explorers. The oldest temples I myself have seen are those on Moiuit Abu in Guzerat, a noble moTuitain of granite between 5000 and 6000 feet in height, and rising as abruptly from the sandy desert in wliich if stands as ;in island from the ocean.

(0 .lAINA AIM'HITECTUUE. Book I. On this liill aru several Jaiiia temples of considerable beauty and extent, but two pieoininently so, being bnilt of white marble, and ornamented with all the resources of Indian art of the age in winch they were erected. Tlie more modern of the two was bnilt by two brothers, rich merchants, between the years 1197 and 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of detail stands almost unrivalled even in this land of patient and lavish labour.' The other, built by another merchant i)rince, Yimala Sah, apparently about the year a.d. 1032,* is simpler and bolder, though still as elaborate as good taste would allow in any purely architectural object. A plan of it is annexed (double the nstial scale), which will suffice to explain the general arrangements of this class of buildings, Avhich are all tulerablv similar, though of course varving considerably in extent. The princijial object licre, as elsewhere, is a cell lighted only from the door, containing a crosslegged seated figuro of the saint to whom the temple is dedicated, in tliis instance Parswanath. The cell is always terminated upwards by a pylamiilal spire-like roof, somewhat similar to those of the numerous little temples of Brambanam in Java,* but more like the Hindu temples of the /a>/'/ '^'^'i^^' ''^gc> to be described """ hereafter. To this is always attached a portico, generally of considerable extent, and in most instances surmounted by a dome resting on eight pillars, which forms indeed the distinguishing characteristic of the style, as well as it« most beautifid feature. In this example the portico is composed of 48 pillars, which is by no means an miusual number ; and the whole is enclosed in an oblong court-yard, about 140 ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, 43 iW JO JiO JO Temple of Viniala Sub, Muuiit Abu. ' A view of this temple, not very correct, by the autlior, p. 39, from which work the forms the title-iKigc to Col. Tod's Travels in plan and view are taken. Western India. 3 See p. 59. * Se

(JlIAP. VUi. TEMPLES. forming porticos to a range of cells, 55 in number, which enclose it on all sides, exactly as they do in a Buddhist vihara. In this case, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a monk, is occupied by one of those cross-legged images which belong alike to Buddhism and Jainism, between which many find it so difficult to distingiiish. Here they are, according to the Jaina practice, all of Barswanath, and over the door of each cell, or on its jambs, are sculptured scenes from his life. Externally the temple is perfectly plain, and there is nothing to indicate the magnificence within, except the spire of the cell*peepiug over the plain wall, though even this is the most insignificant part of the erection. The woodcut No. 44 will give some idea of the aiTangement of the 44. I'orch of Vimala Sah's Templo. porch, but it woidd require a far more extensive and elaborate drawing to convey a correct impression of its extreme beauty of detail and diversity of design. The great pillars, as will be seen, are of tlie same height as those of the smaller external porticos ; and like them they finish with the universal bracket-capital of the East; upon this an

72 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. Hook I. upper dwarf colninii or attic, if I may so call it, is placed to give them additional lieiglit, and on these Tij)per columns rest the great beams or architraves which supjxirt the dome ; as, h(»wcver, the bearing is long, at least in appearance, the weight is relieved by a curious angular strut or truss of white marble, like all the rest of the building, which, s])ringing fi'oni the lower capital, seems to support the middle of the beam. That this last feature is derived from some wooden or cai-pentry original, can, I think, scarcely be doubted ; but in what manner it was iirst introduced into masonry constnicticm is ^mknow^l : probably it niiglit easily be discovered by a more careful examination of the Imildings in this neighbourhood. It continues as an architectural feature down almost to the present day, but gradually becoming more and more attenuated, till at last it loses all its constmctive significance iis a supporting member, and dwindles into a mere ornament. On the octagon so formed rests the dome ; but as this is the principal feature of the architecture, and in fact the one which renders it a matter of interest, it may be as well, before proceeding fui-ther, to say a few woids regarding the invention of domes in general, and of the particular mode of using them adopted by the Jains, without which I fear any description of their architecture will be barely intelligible. Domes. It is to be regi-etted that, while so much has been -oTitten on the history of the pointed arch, so little should have been said regarding the histoiy of domes : the one being a mere constructive peculiarity tliat might very well have been dispensed with ; the other being the noblest feature in the styles in which it prevails, and ])e)ha]is the most impoi-tant acquisition with which science has euriclied the art of architecture. The socalled Treasuries of Mycenae and Orchomenos, as well as the chambei-s in Etruscan tombs, prove that as early as ten or twelve centuries before Christ the Pelasgic races had learned the art of roofing circular chambers with stone vaults, not constnicted, it is tnie, as we constnict them, with radiating vaults, on the principle of the common arch, liut by successive layers of stones converging to a point, and closed by one large stone at the apex. Whoever invented the tnie or radiating arch, the Eomans were the first who a]iplied it as a regular and essential architectural feature, and who at the same time introduced its complement, the radiating dome, into architectural constniction ; at what period it is not now kno^^'n. The earliest example, the Tantheon, is also the finest and largest; Init we have lost entirely the innimierablc steps by which the architects must have slowly progressed to so daring an exi)eriment. There is. liowevcr, a vast diftcrence between these two classes of domes, which it Ls neces.sary to bear in mind in ordei- to understand what follows. riie Honian nvvh and Roman dome are always constructed (woodcut

(liiAi-. VIII. POMES. 73 45) on the princii>le of voussoiis, or truncated wedges, radiating tVum a centre. Tliis enabled the Eonians to cover nnich hirger .spaces witli their domes than perha])s was possible on the horizontal principle ; but it involved the inconvenience of great lateral thrusts, continnally tending to split the dome and tear the building m pieces, recpuring , consequently immense and massive abntments to counteract their destructive energy. This class of dome was entirely overlooked oirejected by the Gothic architects, but was taken up by the contemporary Byzantines, and made by them the princij)al feature of their architecture, and from them passed to the Saracenic architects, who also adopted it as their most important mode of architectural expression. To this we shall return hereafter, as the other is the foini with which we are now princi])ally concerned. 45. Kadiating Arch. 46. Horizontal Arch The Indian or horizontal dome never can be made circular in section, except when used on the smallest scale, but almost always takes a form more or less pointed (woodcut No. 46). From the time of the building of the Treasury of Mycenae to the birth of Christ we have a tolerably complete series of arches and vaults constructed on this principle, but few domes properly so called. After the Christian era the first example is foinid in a singular tomb at Mylassa near llaliearnassus,' where it exhibits all the peculiarities of construction found in the Jaina temples of India. After this we lose the thread t>f its history till the form reappears in porches like that of the temple of Vimala Sah, where it is a perfectly established architectural feature that must have been practised long before being used as we find it employed in that building. Whether we shall ever bo able to recover the lost links in this chain is more than doubtful, but it would be deeply interesting to the history of art if it coidd be done. In the mean time, there is no difficulty in explaining the constructive steps by which the object is now attained in India, which most probably explain also its histoiy, though this is not, of course, capable of direct proof. The simplest mode of roofing a small square space supported by four pillars is nierel}^ to iim an architrave or stone beam from each pillar, and cover the intermediate opening l)y a ])lain stone slab. Unless, however, stones of gi-eat dimensions are available, this mode of construction has a limit very soon arrived at. The next step therefore is to reduce the extent of the central space to be covered by cutting ofi' ' Fully illnstratetl in vol. ii. of tho Dilettanti .Society's Anti(|uities of Ionia. A wtuKkut of it will be given further on.

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JAINA ARCHITECTURE. Book I. its coniera ; this is done by trianp^ilar stones placed in each angle of t lie scuiarc, as in woodcut 47, thus eni])l()ying five stones instead of 47. Diagrams nf Unofing 48. one. By this means, tlie size of the central stone remaining the same, tlie side of the square space roofed is increased in the ratio of 7 to 10, the actual space being doubled. The next step in the process (woodcut 48) is by employing M tiers and 0 stones instead of 2 tiers and .5 stones, which (piadniples tlie area roofed. Thus, if the central stone is 4 ft., by the second process the space roofed will be about o ft. 8 in., by the thinl 8 ft. square ; by a fourth process (woodcut 49), 4 tiers and 13 1^ '-IT ^^ 49. Diiigranis of Routing. 60. stones arc used, and llie extent rotjfcd may l)e !i nr 10 ft., always a.ssuming the central stone to remain 4 ft. square, ^^'ith 4 pillars tlic process is seldom carried further than this, but with another tier and H |)illars, as shown in woodcut 50, it may lie can-ied on a stc]) further, and this is exactly the extent t(» which it is can-ied in the tomb at Myla.ssa above referred to ; but in this, as in all instances of octagonal domes in this style, instead of the octagonal form being left as such,

OlIAl'. Vill. DOMHS. 7.5 tlioro arc .ilway.s 4 external pillars at the an<>;los, so that the square shape is retained, with 12 pillars, of whii-h the 8 iutenial ])ilhirs may be taken as mere insertions to support the long arehitrave between the 4 angular j)il]ars. It is evident that here again wo come to a limit beyond whieh wo cannot progress without using large and long stones. Tliis was sometimes met by making the lower course of 16 sides, by cutting off the angles of the octagon. When this lias been done an awkwardness arises in getting back to the square form. This was escaped in all the instances I am accpxainted with, by adopting circular courses for all above that with 16 sides. Tn many instances the lower course with 16 sides is altogethei' omitted, and the circles phiced immediately on the octagon. It is difticult to say how far this system might be carried constructively without danger of weakness. The Indian domes seldom exceed 30 ft, in diameter, but this may have arisen more from the difficulty of getting architraves above 12 or 13 ft. in length to su]i]iort the sides, than from any inability to constriict domes of larger diameter in themselves. This last difficulty was to some extent got over by a system of bracketing, by which more than half the bearing of the architrave was thrown on the capital of the column, as shown in woodcut 51. Of course this method might have been carried to any 51. Diagram of Indian construction. B. Form of bracket capital in the angle of an octagonal dome. extent, so that a very short architrave would stiffice for a large dome ; but whether this could be done with elegance or not is another mattei'. The Indians seem to have thought not ; at least, so far as I know, they never eaiTied it to any extent. Instead of bracketing, however, they sometimes used struts, as in the instance midcr consideration, the temple of Vimala 8ali, but it is questionable whether that could

7(i JAiXA ARCHITECTUKE. Book I. ever bo made a really sei-viceable constructive expedient in stone architecture. The great advantage to be derived from this mode of conKtnicting domes was the power it gave the architect of placing them on ]iillars without having anything to fear from the lateral thnist of the vault. Tlie lutiiians never even attempted this, but always, so to speak, brought their vaults do\\^l to the ground, or at least could only erect them on great cylinders, which confined the space on every' side. The Byzantine architects, it is tnie, cut away a great deal of this substructure, but neveiiheless they never could get rid of the great heavy piers they were forced to employ to supi)ort their domes, and in all ages were forced to use either heavy abutiuents externally, or to crowd theii' interiors with masses of masonry, so as in a great measure to sacrifice either the external eifect or internal convenience of their buildings to the constructive exigencies of their domes. This in India never was the case ; all the pressure was vertical, and it only re(piired sufllicient strength in the suppoj-t to bear the doA\niward pressure of the mass, and stability was insured — an advantage the impoi-tance of whicli is not easily over-estimated. One of the consequences of this mode of constniction was, that all the decoration of the Indian domes was horizontal, or, in other words, the ornaments were ranged in concentric rings, one above the other, iiLstead of being disposed in vertical ribs, as in Roman or Gothic vaidts. This arrangement allows of far more varietv being introduced, without any oflence to good taste, and piactically has rendered some of these Jaina domes the most exquisite specimens of elaborate roofing that can anywhere be seen. Another consequence deduced from this mode of construction was the employment of pendants from the centres of the domes, which are used to an extent that would have surprised even tlie Tudor architects of oiu- own countiy. \\ ith them, however, the pendant was an architectural "tour de force," requiring gieat constructive ingenuity and large masses to counterbalance, and is ;dways tending to destroy the building it ornaments ; while the Indian pendant, on the contrary, only adds its own weight to that of the dome, and has no other prejudicial tendency. Its fomis, too, generally have a lightness and elegance never even imagined in Gothic art ; it hangs from the centie of a dome more like a lustre of crystal drops than a solid nuxss of marble or of stone. As before remarked, the 8 pillars that support the dome are never left alone, the base being always made square by the addition of 4 others at the angles. Tliere are many small buildings so constnu-ted with 12, but oftener 2 more are added on each face, making 20, ius shown in the upi)er side of the diiigram (52); or 4 on each fiicc, making 28 ; or again, 2 in front of these 4, or 6 on each face, so as to make 36 ; and the same system of aggregation is carried on till the number reaches 56 (woodcut 53), which is the largest number I ever kjiw surnjunding one dome ; but any number of these domes may suiTound one temph-, or central dome, and the number of pillars consequently be multiplied ad injimfum. NN'lien so great a number of

CiiAi'. YIII. TEMPI -ES. pillars iiS introdncod as in \]\v liist instanco, it is usual t(i make the outmost couipavtmont on each face square, and siirnionnt it with a smaller dom(\ This is sometimes done even with the smallest mmiher. but not so Irequeutly. 4 lU'K/'n'yg yi. Diagram Plan of Jaiua Teniplo. 53. Diagram of Jaiua Temple. It Avill be observed that this arrangement makes the principal aisles wider than the side ones, in the ratio of 10 : 7 (or rather 1000 : 707), which for aisles of the same height is perhaps the most pleasing proportion that can be imagined. In Gothic churches the principal aisles are generally twice as wide as the side ones, but the}^ are also twice as high, which restores the proportion. Here, where the height of all is the same, or nearly so, this gradation just suffices for variety, and to mark the I'elative importance of the parts, without the one overpowering the other : and neither has the appeai'ance of being too broad or too narrow. It is of course difficult for those who have never seen a building of the class just described to judge of the effi^ct of these arrangements ; and they have seldom been practised in Europe. There is, hoAvever, one building in which they have accidentally been employed to a considerable extent, and which owes its whole beauty to the manner in Avhich it follows the arrangement above described. The building is Sir Christopher Wren's church of St. Stephen's, VValbrook. Jntcrnally its principal feature is a dome suppoi'ted on 8 pillars, with 4 more in the angles, and 2 ])rincipal aisles crossing the building at right angles, with smaller square compartments on each side. This chui'ch is the great architect's masteiiiiece, but it would have been greatly improved had its resemblance to a Jaina porch been more conqilete. The necessity of confining the dome and aisles within 4 walls greatly injures the effect as compared with the Indian examples. Even the Indian plan of roofing, explained above, might be used in such a building with much less expense and less constructive danger than a Gothic vault of the same extent.

78 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. Book I. It would be a curious subject of speculation to find out whether the Buddliists ever built domes. At first si«5ht, almost every one would bo inclined to aiuswer that they did, so universally do domical forms appear in all their topes ; and it is very diflicult to believe that they should have adopted such a form so generally, without attaching to it some m(ji-e meaning than we can trace in it ; for it is neither the usual form (.)f a tumulus, nor of any sort of roof or covering, except that of a dome of construction. Kotwithstanding, however, this prima facie evidence, added to our knowledge that the Jains adopted the dome at a veiy early period, and made it the principal feature in their architecture, it still appears probable that the Buddhists never constnicted, or knew of, a true dome of any sort. In the first place, no tope shows internally the smallest trace of a chamber so constructed, nor do any of the adjacent buildings incline to such a mode of construction, which must ere now have been detected had it ever existed. In the next place, no one of the caves or rock-cut temples of any sort shows any tendency even to this architectural fonu. In them everything is a direct imitation of some wooden constiiiction, and in no one instance, that I am aware of, is there a semblance of a stone roof of any kind, nor even of an arch, either horizontally constructed or on the radiating principle ; much less of a dome, wliich is a far more complicated and difficult thing to construct than a mere arch. 1 think, therefore, it must be admitted that they were ignorant of the form, or if they knew it that they still adhered, as many races and nations have done before and since their time, to peculiar and characteristic styles of their own. After this digression, little remains to be said of Jaina architecture, excei)t to point out the principal Iniildings in this style so far as they are known. The oldest are those at Jonaghur, in Guzerat ; but they have never been either described or drawn in such a manner as to render them intelligible. The same may almost bo said of the famous temi)le of Somnath, against which Mahmoud, the Gaznavide, directed his famous canijiaigTi in the year 1025. A short accoimt of it is given by Colonel Tod, in his Travels in \Vesteni India ; and a view published by Captain Postaus enables us to ascertain that it is a oO-pillared portico, like the one represented in woodcut No, 53, with a central and 4 angular domes, but not remarkable either for its size or its beauty. It is now converted into a moscpie, and considerably si)oilt in the i)rocess. The other Jama temples of Guzerat are almost wholly unknown to us ; so arc those of the I^Iysorc, though there is eveiy reason to believe that some of them are of gieat beauty and magniificenee. At Chaiidravati, a few miles to the south of Mount Altu, there are many remains of Jaina temjdes of great beauty. The place, however, is now whnlly deserted, and has in consequence been used as a quarry by the neighbouring towns and villages, so that little remains in a perfect state. To the northward of this there are many tenqiles, but none api)arently of great anticpiity. The most liourishing period of the style

ciiAi'. viir. TEMPLE AT SADREE. 79 ui)pears to liavo been that of Khninbo Rana, of Oudcypore, a.d. 1418 to 14()8, who, during his long and. prospcryus reign, filled his coinitry with hoautifiil buildings, both civil and ecclesiastical. Amongst otlicj-s he built the Temple of Sadree, situated in a deserted glen, running into the western slope of the Aravulli, below his favourite foit of Ivomulmeer. Notwithstanding long neglect, it still is nearly perfect, and is the most complicated and extensive Jaina temple I have ever myself seen. From the annexed plan it \\ill be perceived that it is nearly a square, 200 ft. by 225 ft., exclusive of the jirojection on each face. In the centre of this stands the great shrine, irm H Vi?*-^r-t:H-ri5 — I ®Sl ^"' '>-(' not, however, occupied, as usual, by one cell, but by four ; or rather four great niches, in each of which is placed a statue of Adinath, or Eishabdeva, the first and greatest of the Jaina saints. Above pi. this are four other niches, simi- [ larly occupied, opening on the terraced roofs of the building. Near the four angles of the court are four other smaller shrines, and aroimd them, or on each side of them, are 20 domes, supported by about 420 columns ; four of these domes, the central ones of each group, 54. vim uf Temple at Sailrce. From a plan by the .1, , • • 1-1. 1 AutlKir. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. are tm-ee stories m height, and tower over the others ; and one, that facing the principal entrance, is supported by the very unusual number of K) columns, and is 3(5 ft. in diameter, the others being only 24 ft. Light is admitted to the building by 4 uncovered courts, and the whole is surrounded by a range of cells, most of them unoccupied, eacli of which has a pj-ramidal roof of its own. The general external effect of the Sadree Temple may be judged of by woodcut No. 55 ; owing to its lofty basement, and the greater elevation of the principal domes, it gives a more favourable impression of a Jaina temple than is usually the case ; the defect of these buildings generally being their want of architectural design on their exterior faces.' The immense numbt'r of parts in the building, and their general smallness, prevents its laying claim to anything like avchitectura] grandeur; but their variety, their beauty of detail — no two pillars in ' A view of ilic iuleriur is jiiveu in tiic author's li lustrations of Indian Architecture, plate X.

80 JAINA AltCHITECTURE. 15u(tK I. the whole hniltliiip; bcinj^ exactly alike — and the gi-ace \v\i\\ whieli tliL-v are arrati,

OiiAi'. VIII. .lAlXA TOWKKS. 81 h'lu luosquo was effected will be easily understood by referring tti the plan of tluit of Viniala Sail, on IMount Abu (woodcut 4:>, ]>. 70). By removini;- the principal cell and its porch from the centre of the court, and building np the entrances of the cells that surround it, a courtyard was at once obtained, surrounded by a doidilc colonnade, which always was the typical form of a mosque. Still one essential feature was wanting -a more important side towards Mecca; this they easily obtained by removing the smaller pilhirs from that side, and re-erecting in their place the larger pillars of the porch, with their doiiic in the centre, and, if there were two smaller domes, by placing them at each end. Thus, without a single new ccdumu or carved stone beingrequired, they obtained a mosque which, for convenience and beauty, was inisui'passed by anything they afterwards erected from their own c)riginal designs. All .this, however, will l)e more fully illustrated in a subsequent chapter of this W(n-lv, when describing the Mahometan ai-chitecture of India, of which this transformation was the commencement, as it was the end of the style which has just lieen described. Towers. The Jains, like their predccesse)rs the Buddhists, are great towerbuilders ; but towers are, in themselves, frailer structures than temples, besides which there is less zeal in preserving them, so that few remain perfect to our day. Two of these are still standing in the fort of Chittore. The older and smaller of the two, belonging apparently to the tenth century, is the most elegant in form and detail. It is not known for what purpose it was erected.' The other was raised by the same Khumbo Rana who built the temple at Sadree, to eonnnemorate his victory over IMahmoud of Malwa. in the year 1 4:59. Tt therefore is in Buddhist language a Jaya Sthamha, or pillar of victory, like that of Trajan at Rome, but in infinitely better taste as an architectural object than the Roman example, though in scidptui-e it may be inferior. As Avill be seen from the woodcut (No. 56) it is 9 stories in height, each of which is distinctly marked on the exterior, A stair in the centre communicates with each, and leads to tlie tw(^ upper stories, which are open, and more ornamental than those below. It is 80 ft. wide at the base, and more than 1 20 ft. in height ; the whole being covered with architectural ornaments and sculptures to such an extent as to leave no plain parts, while at the same time this mass of decoration is so kept under, that it in no way interferes either with the outline or the general effect of the pillar. The Mahometans, as we shall afterwards see, adopted the plan of erecting towt>rs of victory to commemorate their exploits, but the most direct imitation was by the Chinese, whose 9-storied pagodas are almost literal copies of these Jaina towers, translated into their own pecidiar mode of expression, ' Sep lllustr.-itidiis ol' Imliim ArchitiH tiiM', liy tlio .lutlior, \AMc ix, G

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82 .IAIN A AIU;iHTK(TUI{E. I'.nOK .^U: 56. Tower at Chittore.

(;hap. VIII. CIVIL AUCHITEOTURE. 83 Of tlio civil arcliitcctiire of the Jains we know little. In the few bnildiiiii's roinaining there is nothinc; to distinguish them from those of tlie lliiuliis, ami nothing that can at all vie either in interest or beauty with the temples we have just been describing. These temples, though smaller than those of the SoutheiTi Hindus, and less grand than some of the Buddhist remains, are still, I must think, the most pleasing and elegant sjiecimens. of internal architecture at least, that are now to be found in India.. Could they be traced to their source, they would probably aftbrd as pleasing a chapter of architectural history as any of the second-class styles we are acquainted with. At present the stvle is less known than any of the others found in India, and its history can scarcely be said to have been even broached, much less written by any of those who have hitherto given their attention to the subject.' ' In the above account of .laina nrchitec- would throw more light on the subject than ture 1 have omitted all allusion to the India has been done by the examples above quoted. Subba group of caves at Kllora, which are They look much more like Buddhist caves generally, and, I believe, correctly, ascribed without cells than anytliing the Jains ever to tbe Jains. 1 have done this because struc- built, so far at least as we know, and, though tural examjiles are so much more easily un- interesting as specimens of cave architecture, derstood, that they are always preferable have not the same merit as structural buildwhen they exist, and there is nothing in these ings. Illustrations of them will be found in caves remarkable in itself, nor anything that Daniell's Views in the East. a 2

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84 HANDBOOK OF AKCHITEOTUT^E. I'.UOK BOOK II. HINDU ARCIIITECTUHK CHAPTER I. SOUTHERN HINDU. CONTENTS. Historical notioos — Form of Temples — Porebes of Temples — Gateways — Pillared ilalls — Temples at Seringham, Trivahir, Tinuevolly, Sec. — Kylas at Ellora — Construction of Rock-cut Temples — Modern Hindu style in the South. CHROXOLOGY. I>ATES. Kiilii Sccluini founds Hhuliiia ;il).iiii ilic Cliristian Kra. Viimsji Sccheni rebuilds it, ninth ccnlury ; founds llie collcgp of Madura. Vikrama Clioln— rise of Cliolan supremacy, laiiital Tanjorc A.D. 827 »ATF..«. ViraChola Iniilds trniple at Chillumliruin ; Ari Vari l>fva, his grandson, comiilcles temple at Chilhunhruin a.i>. KylasatKllora, excavated by Cholan princes about Rise of Chalukya power Trimul Naik rebuilds Madura .... mot lOOU iniiK ir.21 Thk architoetnrc of the TTindns may 1)0 divided into three perfectly distinct, tlumgh eonteniporary, tstyle.s. The first being the Sontheni Hindu— that practised by the Tamul races of the south— and wholly confined to the countiies lying between Cape Comorin and the Xerbuddha or Yind^'a range. Tlie second, the Northern or Arian Hindu, ftmnd only between the Himalaya and the nortlumi boinulary of the last-mentioned style, in the countries into which the Arian or Sanscrit-speaking races i)enetratcd, and where they settled, which are now known as the Bengal Presidency. Thi^ third style is found tinly in Cashmere and the Punjab; it (lifters considerably from tlie other two, though possessing more similarity to the southern style than to that which intervenes between them. Of the Northern Hindu style we have very few remains, and we shall hereafter see reason to believe that the art of temple-building never was practised in the North nearly to the extent which we find to have ]irovailed in the South. There is perha]is n.. country in the world where temide-building has receivetl so extraordinary a development tis in the south of India,

Vum: I. 80UTHKUN HINDU STYLK. 85 takino; the aiuuiuit and tho cirfiiiiistaiices of tlie poidilatiun into account. At Jio ])cviod of their liistoiv did the Tainul races rise to anythiuii; like importance politically, nor have we any reason for Itelieving that these countries were ever more populous than they are at present. In literature they have done nothing original, all that they possess being borrowed directly from the Sanscrit of the Arian races of the noith. In science, it need scarcely be added, they have made no advance whatever. Yet this country is covered with temples which, for extent and amount of labour bestowed on them, may rival Karnac; and the most extensive temples of Egyjit, and surpass even the cathedi-als of the middle ages in complexity of design and variety of detail. Their relative merit as works of art is another question, which must I fear be decided against them ; but, as specimens of patient ilevotional labour, they, so far as I know, stand as yet unrivalled in the architectural history of the world. Historical Notick. if a line be drawn east and west from Madras to Maiigalore, it will cut off a portion of India forming nearly an equilateral triangle of 400 miles a side, within which are situated almost all tho great temples of Soiitheni India. To the north of this line the country seems never to have been sufficiently thickly peopled, at least in ancient times, for any rich or powerful states to have been established within its boundaries. Consequently, we do not find many temples there, and those that are known to exist have been so imperfectly drawn or described that they cannot at present be rendered available for elucidating the history of the style. The country to the south of this line has from the earliest times been inhabited (above the Ghcits at least) by people of the pui'e Tamul race, who, so far as we know, are aboriginal in the country. As far as theii" traditions rciicli they have been divided into three kingdoms or states, the Pandyas, the Cholas, and the Cheras, forming a little triarchy of powers, neither interfered with by the other nations of the earth, nor interfering with those bej'ond their limits. During the greater part of theii- existence all their relations of war and peace have been among themselves, and they have grown up a separate people, as unlike the rest of the world as can well be conceived. Of the three, the most southern was called the randyan kingdom, and was the earliest civilized, and seems to have attained sufficient iuq)ortauce about the time of the Christian era to ha^'c attracted the special attention of the Greek and Roman geographers. How nuicli earlier it became a state, or had a regular succession of rulers, we know nt)t,' but it seems ceitainlv to have attained to some consistency as early as five or six centuries before the Christian era, and maintained ' The best account of this stato is tiiat are found in Taylor's Analysis of the Mackgiven by Professor Wilson in vol. iii. of the enzie MSS. anil elsewhere, .lournal K. A. S., but many scattered notices

86 HINDU AKCHITECTUKE. Look 11. itself witliiu its original l);)undancs, till in the middle of the last centiirv it was swallowed up in our all-devouring aggression. During this long period the I'audyans had several epuehs of great brillianey and power, followed by long intervening periods of dejjression and obscurit}'. The first and fifth or sixth eenturies seem to have been those when they espeeiall}' distinguished themselves. If liuildings of these epochs still exist in the country, of wliieh 1 see no imju-obability, they are utterly unknown as yet, as well as all those of the intervening periods down to the reign of Trimul Naik, A.u. 1(524. This prince adorned the cai)ital city of jMadura with many splendid buildings, some of whic;h have been drawn by ]Janiell and others. What more ancient remains there may be will not be known till the place has been carefully and scientifically explored. The Chola kingdom extends from the valley of the Cauvery and Coleroon rivei-s, which seems always to have been their 2)i'iiu'ipal seat, nearly to Madras, all along the eastern coast, called after them ("holomandalam or Coromandel. The date of the origin of their kingdom is not known, but their political lelations with Cashmere can be traced as early as the fifth century, and piobably earliei". Their epoch of greatest gh)ry, however, was between the tenth and twelfth centuries, when they seem to liaA'e concpiered not only their neighbours the Tandyas and Cheras, but even to have surpassed the bounds of the triarchy, and carried their arms into Ceylon, and even as far north as Ellora, where the groat Kylas cave was excavated, either by them or under their influence. After this period they had no great levival like the Pandyas under Trimul Xaik, but sank step by step under the Mahometans, Maharattas, and English, to their jjresent state of utter degi-adation. The Cheras occupied the country above the Ghats between Mysore and Madura, and to the west of the Chola country. They seem never to have been so important as either of their neighbours, and cei-tainly never were such temple-builders, their country being singularly bare of important monuments of this class. They were concjueied by the Cholas in the tenth century, and never afterwards legained their formei' power or position— having only shortly recovered their indei)endence to sink again under the rising power of the rajahs of Mysore and Yijanuggur.' Although, politically, these three states always remained distinct, and generally antagonistic, the people belonged to the same race. Their architecture is different from an}^ other, but united ixi itself, and has gone through a process of gradual change from the earliest times at which we become ai(piainted with it, until we lose sight of it altogether in the last century. This change is invariably for the worse, the earlier sjjeeimens being in all instances the most perfect, and the degree of degradation forming an exact chronometric scale, by which we may measure the age of the luiildings. Ascendiiifr ' I'or all account of the Chera kingdom sue a jiaper by Mr. Dowsoii in vol. viii. ol' tile Journal K. A. S.

CiiAi-. I. SOUTHERN HINDU. . 1^7 upvvurds, wu Idsu the thread ui' uiir aichitectiind histuiy just when we come to something so elegant and pure as almost to admit a eomparison with some of the better specimens of classic art iu more western lauds. The JSontluTU part oi India was the scene of protracted disputes between the Budelhist religion and that of the Hindus' from the fifth to the seventh, century. These contests ended in the persecution and expulsion of the former, though their successors the Jains still flourished at Conjeveram, formerly one of the principal scats of the Duddhists, and in the Mysore. So completely was Buddhism extirjiated, that no monument of that religion exists, so far as I know, to the south of the tope of Amravati described above.* The Hindu religion, which thus l)ecamc supreme, is commonly known by the name of Brahmanical, from the Brahmins or priests belonging to its two great sects. These two sects consist of the worshijjpers of Siva and of Vishnu, and are quite distinct fioju one another, and almost antagonistic. Both are now oveiloaded with a mass of the most mouotrous and degrading superstition. The origin of the Sivite and Vishnave sects is unknown to us. We can confidently assert that neither of them was derived from the IndoGermanic or Sanscrit-speaking races, whose simple monotheism was a pure fire-worship, similar to that of the Persians, and consequently as far removed from the absurdities of the Hindus as can well be conceived. There are several very remarkable coincidences between the tenets of the Vishnaves and the recent discoveries in Assyria. Garuda, the eagle-headed Vahana, and companion of Vishnu, seems identical with the figure now so familiar to us in Assyrian sculpture, probably representing Onuazd. The fish-god of the Assyrians, Dagon, prefigures the fish Avatar, or incarnation of Vishnu. The man-lion is not more familiar to us in Assyria than in India, and tradition generally points to the ^Vest for the other figures scarcely so easily recognised — more especially Bali, whose name alone is an index to his origin ; and Maha Assura, who, by a singular inversion, is a man with a bull's head,^ instead of a bull with a man's head, as he is always figured in his native land. It is worthy of notice, however, tliat the ninth Avatar of Vishnu is always Buddha himself, and that in the fourteenth century there appears to have been no appreciable difference between the Jains and the Vishiuxves ;* wbich, with many other facts which it is needh'ss to refer to here, point I think indubitably to a common origin for these three forms of faith — Budelhism being, so far as we know, the oldest derivative trom that common source ; Jainaism, a less pure modification ; and Vishuaism, one suited to the capacities of the present inhabitants of India. ' Many passages in the Mackenzie I\ISS., Trans. R. A. S., for the scnipture at Maii.i ilepusited at the I'^ast India Houoe, refer to Bali]iurani. these disputes. ■* Asiatic ilesearches, vol. i\. p. "Jlti, ami ^ See p. 14 and woodeiit Nu. 9. vol. xvii. p. 'J85. •' See Dr. Babington, plate 4, vul. ii.,

88 SOUTHK15X HINDU AHCUITECTUKE. Book 11. The Sivitf .superstition cannot but be regardod as an indigenous form of woi>>liip belonging to some of the aboriginal tribes of India, modiiied no doubt to an immense extent by contact with the foreign forms of faith just alltuled to ; the whole being now so completely jumbled together as to a])pear parts of one great system, instead of merely being amalgamations of a vast number of lieterogeneous elements, which iiave been floating about in the unfathomable sea of misguided imaginings of the Hindus during the long dark ages of their ^ intellectual and ])olitical degradation. There does not seem to be any es.sential difference either in the plans or foiTns of the Sivite or Vishnave temples in the south of India. It is only by obser\'^ing the images or emblems worshipped, or by reading the stories represented in the numerous seuli)tures Avith which a temple is adorned, that we tind out the god to whom it is dedicated. Whoever he may be, the temples consist almost invariably of the four following [)arts, arranged in various manners, as afterwards to be exph\ined, but diifering in themselves only according to the age in v.diich they were executed : — 1. The principal part, the actual temple itself, is called the Vimana. It is always square in plan, and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories ; it contains the cell in which the image of the god or his emblem is placed. 2. The porches or Mantajjus, which always cover and i)recede the door leading to the cell. 3. Gate pyramids, Gopuras, leading into the quadrangular enclosures which always surround the I imanas. 4. Pillared halls or ('honUrii't^, used for various piu-poses, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. Besides these, a temple always contains tanks or wells for water — to be used either for sacred purjioses or the convenience of the priests — dwellings for all the various gi'adcs of the priesthood attached to it, and mniierous other buildings designed for state or convenience. VlMAXAS. The ViiiiiiiKU though fieijuently not the largest, is always the most important i)art of a Hindu temple, being in fact the sanctuary or temjile itself. As before stated, it is always square in plan. In snuiller temples the perpendicular part is generally equal in height to its breadth, or, in other words, it forms a cube. In the larger temples its height is very much less than its breadth; but, nevertheless. I believe that the cell which it contains (the garbhu (/riha, or womb of the house) is always a cube, or intended to be so ; but it is so difficult to gain access to it, that I am by no means certain this is alwavs the case. The )ier]tendicular part is always of stone, generally of granite, decorated with jjilasters, niches, and other ornaments conuuon to this style. The jtyramidal roof is generally of brickwoik covered with stucco. This in the smallest temples is only one story high, but in

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(,'11 AT. I. VIMANAS. H'J liirger ones, siu-li ;us that at Taiijon' (woudciit No. 00), it rises throu

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90 SOUTHEllN HINDU AHCHITECTURE. Book II. HO far as 1 know ; still in no instance can it bo traced to a dome of construction. That it is borrowed from the Buddhist toi»e will be tolerably evident by referring to woodcut No. 41, where a similar termination covers a Nepalese kosthakar ; but jn that instance it undoubtedly is meant to represent the sacred emblem of the Buddhists. In the older exam])lo at Mahavellipore it lo(jks more like the umbrella that crowns the liuddhist relic-shrLue (see woodcut No. 14) than the relic-shrine itself; but in either case its origin can hardly be considered as doubtful. 58. Temple at Tanjore. From the ' British Museum- Egyptian Antiquities,' vol. i. p. 188. I'.y far the most splendid temple in India is the great pagoda at Tanjore ; it.s base measures 82 ft. each way, it is two stories in height, and its pyramidal roof rises through 14 stories to a height of ISO ,.!• 2t^

CiiAi'. I. roilCUKS AND GATE rYl^UjlDS. '.U history if any «'iie would take tliu trouble to read them. As far as can he aseertaiued, it l)eU)iigs to the great age of the Chohi dynasty, prohahly the tenth or eleventh centuiy ; but if so, its upper pax't must have undergone a A-ery thoroiigh repair at some later date, possibly on its appropriation to Sivaism ; for, as its gateways are decidedly Vishnave, the temjile was probably so also when first built, but like many otlu^rs in India given over to the more popular faith at some subsequent period. At all events it is the finest temple in the south, being almost the only one in which the mmatia or temple is the prineijial object, round whicli the subuj'dinate ones are grouped in such a manner as to make a great and consistent whole. Generally speaking, they have been aggregated together as if by accident, and the princi}>al ol)ject is so overpowered by the secondary ones as utterly to destroy all appearance of design. In most instances the light is admitted to the cell only by its doorway ; but as if this were not sufficient to ensure the obscurity which they covet so much, as enhancing the mystery of the sanctuary, it is generally covered by an ante-temple, or pronaos — here called Aidercthi — generally about half as deep as it is broad, its breadth being the same as that of the cell. Porches, ok Mantapas. Beyond this is a porch, or Manfapa, which is usually a square building, in jjlan nearly identical with the temple itself, and having a door on each of its four sides, one leading to the cell of the tem})le, the other three admitting light and access to its interior. Its roof is generally pyramidal, but very much lower than that of the temple itself; but often it is flat, and devoid of any crowning ornament. To this another porch sometimes succeeds ; and wlien this is the case, the inner one is distinguished as the Ardha Mantapa, the outer as the Maha Mantapa. When joined together the outer, is generallv o])en in front and closed only on the sides, so that it does not materially obstruct the passage of light to the interior. Sometimes it is detached, and then takes any form that fancy may dictate. The roof of these porches, when large, is siq)ported with pillars ; but the Hindu architects never willingly resort to this expedient, ger.erally reducing the bearing as far as possible by bracketing and projecting cornices, and then aiding the long stones that form the ceiling by beams of wood, (jr even of iron, laid under them, so as to gain the re(piisite strength by any contrivance rather than by ])illars. Many of the finest tenqdes of India owe their ruin to this strange peculiarity in a people who in other instances were lavish of columnar arrangements to an extent unknown in any other part of the world. Gate Pyramids, or Gopuras. The cell and its porch together form the temple, properly so called : but in all instances they were enclosed — or at least it was iiitcudrd they should be so —in a rectangular court. The walls of this couit

'.»2 SOUTtlElJN HINDU AKCHITECTURE. Book II. iiio liji;!!. iiiul plain L-xtoiiially, but intonially oniaiiioiitcd by culoiiiiades aiitl cloisters, or buildings of various sorts ada}»tcd to the service ol" the tenqtle. This gave rise to the Gate Pyrauiids, which tbnoi the entrances to these eourt*i. \\ hen only one Avail surroinidcd the temple, only one gateway wah used, directly facing the porch. W here a second enclosure surrounded the hist, the outer A\all had usually two gateways, ojie in front of that of the inner wall, the other exactly opposite behind the temple ; with 'A enclosures, 4 gojiuras were required for the outer enclosure, one in the centio of each face. So that a temple, such as that at Seringham. with 7 enclosures, ought to have 28 gopuras ; the number however is seldom complete, Seringham having, 1 believe, only 17, and no other that I am acquainted with so many. Another curious practice is, that the gateway is made to bear some projionion to the length of the wall in which it is ]ilaccd. I'hus at Seriughaui, the inner enclosure being 200 or 800 ft. s([uare. the gate l)yramid is only 40 or 50 ft. broad, and the passage thiough it 10 or 12 ft. wide, and 18 or 20 ft. high; while the outer ones, standing in walls 2475 and 2880 ft. in extent, are loO ft. wide by 100 ft. deep, the opening 21 ft. G in. wide by twice that in height. The jambs are fonned of single blocks of granite at least 40 ft. in length, and the whole is roofed by slabs of gTanite not less than 23 or 24 ft. long. These gateways, though not older than the beginning of the last century, arc among the most stupendous buildings of the south of India. This arrangement gives rise to a singular piece of architectural bathos. The original sinall cell in this, as in many other instances, has become sacred from some mvstical cause or other ; and instead of either rebuilding it on a larger scale, or building over it, as the Buddhists would have done, the Hindu architect has merely regilt and re-ornamented it. Next another and another enclosure with its gate-towers has been added, so that there is no central object of attraction. N'iewed externally, the tcnqile is a congeries of gate pyramids without object, and on entering you i»ass from the most magnificent stnictures to those which are less and less so, till at last you arrive at the meanest thing of all, the sanctum sanctonim of the whole temple. To a Hindu its sanctity may hide all its defects ; but the architect has certainly failed to work up to the greatness of his subject. Tanjore is one of the few temples in the south which escape this faidt, so destructive of architectural grandeiu'. The form of the Gopura*> is easily understood, as it is identical with that of the Vimanas, except that, instead of being always square, they are always larger in one direction than. the other, and their longer side is pierced with an opening occui)ying from one-fouilh to one-seventh of the whole width. This oblong shape also necessitates the abandonment of the circular croAvniing ornament, which is lengthened out to correspond with the general section of the building. Ihis, like the form of the tenqdes, is explicable by a reference to Ituddhist l»uildings. The large long building, for instance, in woodeut No. 42. which almost imdouliledly represents the exterior of a

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CllAl>. 1. C.ATK I'YRAMIDS. 9; 5 Entrance to a Hindu Tomple, Colombo. From Sir J. E. Tennent's ' Ceylon.' 60. Gopura, Combaconum. From a Sketch by Uie Autlior.

M SOUTHERN HINDU ARCHITECTURE. Book II. nnddhist C/tai'h/a hall, if pierced with an opening in the side instead of at tilt' end. would fonu a (lopura : and the Ilindns, w^lien byilding in a Biuldliist country, still adhere to ihi.s fonu more closely than in their own tcn-itories, as may be seen by the woodcnt No. 59, representing the gateway' of a temple in Ceylon, still retaining the simple fonn almost lost in the complication to wliich their gateways have been sulijected in modem times. One of the tallest gate pyramids I know of is that belonging to the principal temple at Combacouum (woodcut No. GO), which became the capital of the Chola after the temporary abandonnient of Tanjore. It rises to 12 stories, including the basement, which is of granite and plain, while the Avhole of the pyiamid is of brick stuccoed, and covered with sculpture and architectural ornaments to an extent undreamt of by European imagination. Its want of proportion, and the endless repetition of small parts, prevent its being so pleasing an architectural object as the smaller gate jiyramids genei'ally are, though it is certainly imposing from its mass. Pillared Halls. By far the most extraordinary buildings connected with these fanes are the pillared colonnades or choultries which occupy the spaces between the various enclosures of the temples. They are of all shapes and sizes, from the little pavilion supported on 4 pillars up to the magnificent liaM numbering a thoiisand. Their uses too are most various : in ancient times they served as porches to temples ; sometimes as halls of ceremony, where the dancing-girls attached to tlic temples dance and sing ; sometimes they are cloisters suiTOimding the whole area of the temple, at others swinging porches, where the gods enjoy at stated seasons that intellectual amusement. But by far their most impoi'tant application is when used as nuptial halls,' in which the mystic union of the male and female divinities is celebrated once a year. Those dedicated to these festivals sometimes attain an extent of 1000 cfdnmns, and are called in consequence halls of 1000 columns, though they do not in all instances make up this complement. At Tinnevelly the great pillared hall has 100 columns in its length, by 10 in width, so that it would have exactly that number were not 24 omitted to make way for a small temple. At ( 'hillunibnmi the hall is 24 pillars wide by 41 in length, which, adding the 10 of the porch, would make up the number ; but some are omitted in the centre to admit of space for ceremonies, so that the actual number is only 030. At Tiruvalur* the gieat liall is IH pillars wide by 43 in dcjith, or 688 ; one-half of them, however, support no roof, so that it is probably unfinished. At Scringham the hall is of about the same extent; and several other temples have halls, the nmnber of whose ' In this r.ise they arc ciUed chriort, the « Ham Raz, Essay on Hin«hi Architertiire, same word, I believe, radically, as c/ioultn/. plate xlviii.

ClIAV I'lLLAHKl) IIAIJ.S. 95 ]iill;trs vuries from (>0() tu 1000; in filmufst every instanoc coinposcfl of .•I Inird el ose-i;T; lined f2;ranite. eovcred witli s(!iil])tiue from the base to tlie ea])ital, and in most instanees no two jiillars are exactly alike. 'I'lien^ is tlms an endless and bewildering variety in the detail, though fli(» general dimensions and eifect are the same. The eonstrnt'tion of these choultries will be l)est understood from tlie annexed section of one used as a porch to a small temple at Chillumbruni; as will be seen, it is a five-aisled porch, supported by six Section of rorcU of Tomplc at Cliillnmbnmi. From a Sketch by the Author. No scale. square columns, about 18 in. each way and 20 ft. in height. The outer aisles are only (3 ft. in width, the inner 8 ft., and they are roofed simply by flat stones laid side by side. The whole energ}- of the architect, however, has been reserved for the central aisle, which has a clear width of 21 ft. 6 in. ; a space so wide that it would be difficult to span it without using stones so heavy as to crush the substructure. To avoid this a bracketing shaft of singular elegance is attached to the front of the square pillar, and a system of bracketing carried up till the space to be spanned by flat stones is about equal to that of the side aisles, or in other words the space between the pillars is divided into three equal portions of about 8 ft. each, the side portion borne on the brackets, and the central space only remaining to be roofed. Lest, however, there should be a tendency to lateral weakness in so extensive a bracket, about half-way up it a stay ' is introduced, in the form of a slight stone beam extending from one to the other, Avhich certainly adds extremely to tlic elegance, and alst) ]-)robably to the strength of the structure. The general effect of the arrangements of this porch will be seen from the woodcut No. 62, though it cannot do justice to its singular elegance and grace. This is the oldest example I have seen of the arrangement, dating probably from the tenth century, and therefore the most elegant. The more modem examples, though richer, have lost much ' Sliown more clonrlv in tlio woodcut No. G2.

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90 SOUTHERN HINDU AHCHITECTURE, IIOOK il. 6.;. View ot I'orcb at Cliilluuibruiu. Fruui ilrtiwuigs by Uie Author. (if the beaiity, and nearly all the cun.stnictive propriety and o'race. Avhieh we find in this. One cif the most remarkable of these is the hall built l)y Trimnl Naik at Madura, and tolerably well known to the English public from Daniell's illustration of it. It was commenced in in2;j, is said to have cost nearly a million sterling, and occupied twenty-two years in its erection.' As will l)e seen by the annexed jilan (woodcut No. 63), the building is ;53i{ ft. long by 81 ft. 10 in. wide, and is supported by 128 pillars or ]>icrs, all of which difter, and all are covered with the most elaborate and minute architectural oniamojits — manv bavin"; fiiiures attached to tbc fronts of them, as w(>n as groups ou their sides. In this instance the brmkiting sliait lias ' .J. K. A. S., vol. iii. p. 2ri2.

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Chap. I. 1'1I,LA1!EI) I1AI,I,S. 97 luei-ged into tlio pilluv ; the whole becomes a pier from 5 ft. to 6 ft. in width, with .scarcely a remiiiisceiice of the original arrangement from which it sprang. The accompanying elevation of one of these (woodcut No. 64) wll show the form which the piers took about this time, and which is common to them all, after this date, though not foimd before. The object in building this magnificent choultry was to provide a suitable abode for the god, who consented to leave his temple for ten days everj' year, and visit the king, on condition of his providing a suitable building for his reception. Tdfc NCH r ij. ''"' '-'JS ■ IS * fi, » • o : «> « •9 9 » « ; o « © ■a -iS « ; "2 & t> « ■3 E^ o ; « a> o ■^ ; ■& «■ »* i> ■* o cc 4 «• iC o ■s 3» -i' C* >9 « ■9 E> s. « ea » ^ ■3 <9 » £i* « ; •» S3 S> « « & «■ 9 « » .9 1 ,9 P * « 9fi . & ■--■81' 10" •-- IW o".— ^ j.J I'lan of Trimul Naik's Choultry. 64. Pillar in Triimil Naik's Chouliry. From drawings in the possesslou of the Royal Asiatic Society. Between these two arrangements — the more modern, where the square pillars merge into flat piers, and the older one, in which the square shape is never lost sight of — come the pillared halls of the celebrated temple of Eamisseram on an island between Ceylon and the mainland. These arc 5-aisled choidtries, and encircle the temple twice, and with their various junctidns extend to near 4000 ft, in length, with every variety of light and shade and complexity of form

98 SUUTUEKN UlNDU AKCHITI-XTURE. Hook 11. and effect, lUiikiug up one of the most va«t uml elaborate of all the U-iii|(lc.s in the smith ot" India.' NVheiv the subordination of parts is preserved, the general effect of these clionltries is pleasing, and, from their vastness, sometimes almost reaches to sublimity. But in the more modern times this (pijilitv is neglected, and, as at TinnevcUy and Chillundjrum, both of which were erected during the last century, the choultries are mere collections each of 1000 colunnis, placed at equal distances, generally no more than 6 ft. apart, without any variety or liarmony of arrangement whatever. Such a foiest of pillars, carved and elaboiatctl as these arc, cannot fail to produce some effect, but it wM)uld bii difticult to conceive any design on which so much labdiir could be bestowed productive of so little of either beauty or gi-andeur. Ill other instances, a« at Seringham, Conjeveram, and elsewhere, a middle coiu'se is followed between these tw^o extremes, the great hall being tiaversed by one wide aisle in the centre for the whole of its greater length, and inteisected by transepts of like dimension running across at right angles. There still remain seven side-aisles on each side, in which all the pillars are eciually spaced out. In those, looking outwards from the centre aisle, the arrangement is not without a certain magnificence of effect, but it neither has the sublimity of the long-drawn vistas of liamisseram, nor the spacious exuberance of Triiiiul Xaik's choultry at Madura. The mode in which those various ])arts arc generally grouped together will be undeistood by the Iavo following illustrations, one a plan of the temple at TinnevcUy, the other an isometric view of that at Tiruvalur, both comparatively modem examples, but sufficiently characteristic to ex])lain all that has been said above of the style. 'i'lie temple at Tiruvalur measures externally 9-15 ft. by 701 ft., and has b gate pyramids in its outer enclosure, 2 in the second, and one in the inner. The sanctuary is double, and surrounded by a cloister. The next enclosure is crowded by temples and buildings of eveiy slnqjc and size, placed without the least reference to symmetrical arrangement, in the outer court are several larger temples, some placed at diifeient angles from the rest ; and towards the j)riiicipal entrance is the great choultry, intended aj>parently to have had 1000 ciilumns, but evidently unfinished, one-half of those already erected having no roof to support. As before mentioned, the number now standing is »)88. These are all ecpially s}>aced, except that tlieie is a broad aisle down the centre, and a narrower transverse avenue in the direction of the entrance. Hence it will easily be understood how inferior, as an architectural design, this is to such an arrangement as that of the 420 columns of the temple at .Sadiee,'' t)r indeed of any •laina building, however small. Their uniformly flat roofs jnevcut r-ven the older chotdtries from reaching the beauty of these domical ' .\ |ilaii 111 tins tt-inpic i> givoii in tlif uopiiia, and in the India House are .MS .louriial of the (!eiv^va|ihical Societv of Unni- views nt' its interior. Iiay, vol. vii. ."^alt j)iiblishe. 79, wooiUnits bi and 55.

CHAl'. 1. TIHUVALUR. 99 I'xaniples ; wliilc the modern ones are certainly ininieasurably in fcrior. 05. Temple at Tinivaliir. Fruiu a tUawiiig in Ram Raz's Hindu Architecture. Though neither among the largest nor the most splendid temples of Southern India, that at Tinnevelly will serve to give a good general idea of the arrangement of these edifices, and has the advantage of having been built on one plan, and at one time, without subsequent alteration or change. It is also a double temple, the great square being divided into two equal halves, one of which is dedicated to the god Siva, the other to his consort Parvati. The next woodcut, No. G6, represents one of the halves, Avhich, though differing in arrangement from the other, is still so like it as to render the description of the other superfliious. The general dimensions of the whole enclosure are 580 ft. by 75()ft., the larger dimension being divided into two equal portions of 378 ft. each. Thei'c are tlu'ee gateways to each half, and one in the wall that divides the two ; the principal gateway faces the entiance to the temple, and the lateral ones are opposite each other. An outei* portico precedes the great gateway, leading internally to a very splendid porch, which, before reaching the gateway of the inner enclosure, branches on the right to the intermediate gateway, and on the left to the great hall cif 1000 columns — 10 pillars in width by 100 in length. The iimer enclosure is not concentric with the outer, and, as usual, has only one gateway. The temple itself consists of a cubical cell, surmounted by a vimana or spire, preceded by two porches, and is surH 2

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100 SOUTHERN HINDU AllCHITECTURE. I500K H. III * fcwi I — «l . ^-v ^ ; «"a . v'^r, Half Plan of Tunple at Tlniievelly. From a jilaii in the pos!>ession of the Koyal Asiatic Society. Scale lUU ft. to 1 in.

(^HAi'. I. ELLORA. 101 rounded by triple colonnades. In other parts of the enclosure are smaller temples, tanks of water, gardens, cohmuades, &c., but neither so numerous nor so various as are generally found in Indian temples of the class. These temples have often been compared with those of Eg}'pt, particularly that of Caniac. Undoubtedly there are many very striking points of resemblance. The gopura both in form and purpose is by no means inilike the great propylon of Egyptian temples : the mantapa is analogous to the hypostijle hall : and the inner enclosures, small cells, and insignificant central objects correspond very closely. We know also that there was considerable commercial intercourse between the two countries at a very ancient time. But on the other hand the two styles differ so widely in details and in purpose that we cannot positively assert the actual connection between them, which at first sight seems unquestionable. A far more striking similarity exists between such a temple as this and that at Jerusalem ; and if Josephus's description of that temple as rebuilt by Herod be read with such a plan as this of Tinnevelly before us, it is difficult to escape the conviction that the coincidences are not wholly accidental. That temple must, of covirse, be squared as these usually are, and the dimensions then become nearly the same. The great choultry is then the Stoa Basilica, the outer court that of the Gentiles. No separation of the sexes being known in the Eastern temples, the women's court is omitted ; but the inner enclosure, the form of the temple, its gateway, its pillars, and other peculiarities are so like in both that we can scarcely doubt their being derived from some common origin. We probably have no means of tracing what that common origin may have been. Kylas at Ellora. One of the most interesting monuments of Hindu architecture is the rock-cut temple at Ellora, genei'ally known as the Kylas. From its beaiity it always excited the astonishment of travellers, and in consequence is better known than almost any other structure in that coimtry, from the numerous views and sketches that have been published of it. Unlike the Buddhist excavations we have hitherto been describing, it is not a mere interior chamber cut in the rock, but is a model of a complete temple, such as might have been erected on the plain. In other words, the rock has been cut away, externally as well as internally. The older caves are of a much more natural and rational design than this temple, because, in cutting away the rock around it to provide an exterior, the whole has necessarily been placed in a pit. In the cognate temples at Mahavellipore (illustrated woodcut No. 42) this dilemma has been escajicd by their carvers having found the boulders of granite out of which they are hewn lying fiec on the shore ; but at ICllora, no insulated rock being available, a pit was dug in the sloping side of a hill, about 100 ft. deep at its inmost side, and half that height at the entrance or gopura, the floor of the pit being

102 SOITTHERX HINDC ARCHITECTURE. Book I' 1 50 ft. wide and 270 ft. in length. In the centre of this rectangular Court stands tln' temple, as sliown in the annexed plan (woodcut 07), drawn to the usual scale, consisting of a vimana, between 80 ft. and 90 ft. in height, preceded by a large square porch, supported by IG columns (owing probably to the immense weight to be borne) ; before this stands a detached porch, reached by a bridge ; and in front of all stands the gateway, which is in like manner connected with the last porch by a bridge, the whole being cut out of the native rock. Besides these there are two pillars or sthambas also left standing on each side of the detached iiorch, and two elephants about the size of life. All round the court there is a peristylar cloister with cells, and some halls not .shown in the plan, which give to the whole a cojuplexit}', and at the same time a completeness, which never fail to strike the beholder with astonishment and 67. Kylas at Ellora. Corrected from a plan in Daniell's Views in Hindostan. awe. As will be seen by the annexed view, its general form is extremel}' similar to that of the principal temple at Mahavcllipore (woodcut 42), and also to tliat atTanjftre (woodcut .^S) ; and although it is not easy to make this apparent on the small scale of the woodcuts, 1 can assert, from personal inspection of the three examples, that they are identical iis far as style is concerned. Some allowance, of course, must be made {'ov the difference of age, the Kylns belonging to the ninth or tenth, the Maliavellipore Kaths to either the twelfth or thii-t«>enth centuries, and the Tanjore temple, though probably intenuediate between the two, having, aa before stated, been altered at some subsequent period to its present form. That they belong to the same race and the same religion seems undoubted ; and they are. as will presently be showni. Ko unlike anytliing further north, that tliere can be little doubt that it is to an ovei-flowing of the Tamul races that we owe the Kylas, and probably also the introduction of the Sivite religion into the countries occu]ued by the Arian races. As the oldest of the tlu'ee buildings, the Kylas presents an interesting peculiarity which we might expect, but do not find elsewhere.

("1IAI>. I. ELLOIU. 10:3 6S. Kylas, Kllora. From a sketch by the Author. which is, that the cells surroinuling tlic viniana are detached, five of them opening in a little conrt-yard in whicli the vimana stands, each with a separate entrance of its own, and destined for its own peculiai" image or object of Avorship. The fourth side of this court is occupied by the })orch. At Mahavellipore the cells may be called semi-detached, each being distinct, though in reality they ai-e only false cells. In the l^eiinnal pagoda (woodcut 57) they have grown to be actually parts of the vimana, and so they are always treated at \\w present day. it is interesting to trace the process from the detached cell of the Buddhists as foimd in Java to their present descendants, which, without tlie intermediate steps, we could scarcely recognise. Considerable misconception exists on the subject of cutting temples in the rock. Almost every one who sees these temples is struck with the apparently prodigious amouni of Libour bestowed on their excavation, and there is no doubt that their monolithic character is the principal source of the awe and wonder with which they have been regarded, and that, had the Kylas been an edifice of masonry situated on the plain, it would scarcely have attracted the attention of European travellers at all. In reality, hoAvcvcr, it is considerably easier and less expensive to excavate a temple than to build one. Take, for instance, the Kylas, the most wonderful of all this class. To excavate the area on which it stands would require the removal of about 100.000

104 SOUTHERN HINDU ARCHITECTURE. Book II. cubic yards of rock, hni, a.s the base of the teini)le is solid and the siiperstrnctuio niansive, it occiipies iu round numbers about one half of the excavated area, so that the question is simply this--— whether it is easier to chip away 60,000 yards of rock, and shoot it to spoil (to boiTDW a riiihvay term) doA\ni a hill-side, or to quarry 50,000 cubic yards of stone, remove it, probably, a mile at least to the place where the temple is to be built, and then to raise and set it. The excavating process would probably cost about one-tenth of the other. The sculpture and ornament would be the same in both instances, more especially in India, where buildings are always set up in block, and the carving executed in sitTi. Neveilheless the impression produced on all spectators by these monolithic masses, their unalterable character, and appearance of eternal durability, point to the process as one meriting more attention than it has hitherto received in modem times; and if any rock were found as unifurm and as easily worked as the Indian amygdaloidal traps, we might hand down to posterity some more durable monument than many we are now erecting at far gi-eater cost. Before leaving the STibject of southern temples, I must alhide to another at Tanjore, which, at a distance, almost rivals in dimensions and outline the great pagoda (woodcut 58), of which it is evidently a copy. On a nearer inspection, however, it is found to be made up wholly of Italian details of the very worst class. The external cells are oniauiented with Corinthian and Ionic pilasters, as badly designed as they are executed, alternating with ranges of balusters of the dumpiest and clumsiest fonns. The whole is painted with a vulgarity which it is difficult to miderstand in a people who have shown such taste in earlier times, and so exquisite an eye for colour and detail. Such, however, are the effects of the miserable state of dependence to which they have been rediiced, and such the results of an attempt to copy servilely a style utterly unsuited to their wants, and which they can neither understand nor appreciate. It is amusing to see another ])("0]de trying this copying system. We see with half a glance how ludicrous the failuie is with them ; but while we so easily detect their speck, we utterly foi'get the beam that closes our own eyes. Nevertheless, before the Hindus fell so low as this, their art went through another stage, not iniproductive of beauty and elegance, and which might eventually have been elaborated into a style even surpassing their own more ancient forms. This new style is found iu the buildings erected under the influence of the ]\Iahometans, and adopts, to a certain extent, some of the more prominent forms of their architecture. When the Mahometans first conquered India they imitated in llieir earlier mosques not only the details, but even the fonns, of the Hindu architects, and their style in that country always bore strongly the impress of the land in which it was elaborated, still retaining its arched form, and a more daring construction than the Hindus had ever attempteil. In process of time a complete reaction took place, and in their secular buildings at least, though scarcely ever in their temples, the Hindus began to adopt the arcades and vaults of their antagonists. J

ClIAl'. I. lat]<:h style.="" using="" tlumii.="" liowevor="" in="" tlieir="" own="">ecnliiu- fiisliiun. and making what may be callcul an amalgamation of two styles, latliei- than a mere copy of the other. Even if they had copied from the Mahometans, it would have been a very ditterent thing from borrowing from another age or another clime that which had become antiquated, oi- was unsuitable. It was merelvtho adoption by one part of the inhabitants of a country of those tVirnis which another and more energetic })ortion of its inhabitants had foimd best suited for their purposes. In the south of India one of the most pleasing specimens of this style is a portion of the palace of jMadura, commenced by Trimul Naik, and completed by his successors, now utterly fallen to ruin and decay. The part most illustrative of the new style is the great Hall of Audience, shown in the annexed Avoodcut ; but other parts and other _ miw'-'' 69. Hall in Palace, Madura. From Daniell's Views in Hindostan. halls show the same characteristics with more or less distinctness. It is not known by whom this hall was erected ; at first sight it might be supposed improbable that the builder t)f the choultry illustrated above (woodcuts 63, 64) could adopt so diiTerent a style in his palace. Innovation, however, in secular affairs, is a totally different thing from novelty in things sacred, in India, as well as clsewh(?re ; and the consequence is, that the change never reached the temples, though it was common in palaces in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuiies.

106 SOUTHERN HINDI' AIJCHITFXTUKE. Book 11. I should be iiicliiied to date tlit' hall rtith(!r from the hc«;inning of tlio fightuuiilli than in the sevonteonth eentnry; hut without seeing it, it is hazarthtus to ventni'e even a coniecturo on such a subject. To these points I shnll have occasion to revert hereafter, when speaking of the styles of the north. In the meanwhile our limits wani us to take leave of a style well deserving of more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon it. Its historic inteiest is veiy great : the buildings to which it gave rise are remarkable for their extent and number. It exhibits also great beauty of detail, especially in the older instances. The gTandeur of some of its forms, and the general pui-pose-like attainment of the ends aimed at, give rise to eft'ects as pleasing as they are startling, and afford hints well worthy of the study of any of those who wish to master the theory or practice of the art of architecture. For when a nation labours perhaps through thousands of years to attain a given object, small and moan as the individual ctibrts may be, the accumulated results attain im})ortauce such as no individual capacity ever could realize, and such as can only be reached b}' the united eff"orts of millions exerted through a long series of ages.

Chap. W. NORTHERN HINDU STYLES. 10CHAPTER IT. NORTHERN HINDU STYLES. CONTENTS. t'littack Temples — Temples in Upper India — Modern Temples at Bindrabini and Benares — Mixed Hindu style — Tombs — Palaces — GMts — Bunds — Wells, &c. CHRONOLOGY. DATES. DATE?. Iiuasiuii of Cuttack by strangers coming by sea A.D. 218 Lelat Indra Kesari builds temple at Bobaneswar 657 Atianga Uhim Deo builds temple at Juggernath 1174 Iiidra-dyimma cuts caves at EUora . . . 1176 Raja Nursing Deo builds Ulack Pagoda at Kanaruc a.d. 1236 Maun .Sing builds temple at Bindrabun . 1592 Amera .Sing rebuilds Oudipore .... 1596 Jaya Sing builds Jeypore 1698 Sooraj Mull liiiilds palace at Deeg . . . 1750 From the earliest age at which traditiun first .sheds even the dimmest light on Indian history to the present hour, the valley of the Ganges has always been the richest and most populous part of the countr}-. Here the first .strangers settled, bringing with them the civilization of the ^^'e.st ; here that civilization was elaborated into those peculiar institutions that still so strongly subsist after the lapse of tlioiusands of years. It was in this valley that those heroes lived whose exploits are celebrated by the Indian epic and dramatic poets, whose works are now becoming familiar to us : and here it was that the religions of Buddha and Brahma arose, which still influence at least a fourth of the whole human race. Here, therefore, we naturally look for monuments to ilhistrate the manners and customs of those bygone ages; but we look in vain. It has been already said ' that there are no certain traces of ancient Hindu architecture, that is to say, of anything i)revious to the spread of Buddhism. In Northern India, with the few exceptions to be shortly noticed, there are no genuine Hindu buildings at all earlier than the time of the IMahometan conquest. Wo might be inclined to attribute this to the idol fanes of the vanquished race having been destroyed by tiie religious zeal of the conquerors. But this explanation is inconsistent with the fact that several Buddhist monuments remain in this very district, and many of the Jains, converted for the most part into mosques, though pertectly easy to be recognised. The phenomenon, therefore, can only be ' See p. 5.

108 NORTHERN HINDU ARCHITECTURE. Book II. accounted for by the assumption, confinned as it is by other evidence, that the Arian lacc. which ]»ro vailed in this part of India from a very early period, was not in the habit of building temples or durable edifices of any kind. It is only in the remote province of Orissa, or in the jungles of Rajpootana, that any exara])les are found of early Hindu buildings. Orissa, being on the boundaiy of the Tamul races, and as little influenced by Arian prejudices as can well be conceived, is covered with temples, some of which are of great magnificence ; and though the province is remote, .and always was comparatively poor, it possesses now more temples than the whole of the rest of liengal. Tn Rajpootana, which, if tradition may be trusted, was far more influenced by the Huns — within at least the temple-building age — than by the Arian race, we find the same phenomenon. The little hill-fort, for instance, of Chittore has its brow garnished A^th more temples, and more architcctuio.l magnificence, than any of the great capital cities that once adorned the fertile plains watered by the sacred stream of the Ganges. Orissan Tkmples. So remote is the province of Orissa, that it is Avith the greatest diificulty we can glean CA^en such scanty notices of its histor}^ as are usually available in Eastern countries. We knoAV, how^ever, from the inscription at Dauli, that Asoka sent hither his missionaries and published his edicts here ; and it is CA'ident from the caves on the Udyagiri that Buddhism did exist here from that period till some time after the Christian era. We knoAV also that the famous Tooth-relic was preserved in this province up to the beginning of the fourth century, in a temple which stood Avhere the far-famed temple of Juggeniath now stands,' whose Avorship seems to be only a cornipt Buddhism, so oA-erlaid Avith local Fetichism as scarcely to be recognisable. It seems very doubtful whether, in the beginning of the fourth century, the kings of Orissa Avcro Buddhist or lirahmanical — they wavered apparently bctAveen the tA\^o.* Aljout that time the succession Avas distiirbed by an invasion ^ of barbarians, Avho retained the country for 146 years. After this the original family, or at least the original race, regained power, and it is Avith them that our architectural histoiy commences. The earliest authentic building that avc have of this race, or indeed of the Hindu religion in Ilindostan, is the great temple of Bobaneswar, built by Lelat Tndra Kesari. A.n. 657 ; and from this time to the present day the series is tolerably complete, showing a gradual progress of style ' The curious accounts given by Fa Ilian doubt but that the latter is merely a copy, in the beginning of the 5th century of the a purely Buddhist peculiarity, and not at all procession of the Tooth from its chapel at belonging to Hinduism. See Foe Koui Ki, Anumdhapoora to ^lehentele, and its return jip. 17 and 335. after a certain sojourn there, are so exactly * J. A. S. B., vol. vi. p. 856 ct scq. transcrijits of the annual festival of the Hath •'' Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 263 etneq. .Fattra <>f .luggertiath, that there can he no

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Chap. II. I'.()BANESWA1 loy fr(tin the oldest to the most modern — slow it must be confessed, but still sufficient to eiiuble a practised eye always to detect at least the century iu which any monument was raised. The annexed elevation (No. 70) will explain the peculiarities of to. Restored elevation of the Black Pagoda at Kanaruc. From a drawing by the Author. No scale. these temples, which are all built nearly on the same plan. They consist in the first place of a great tower or vimana, in the centre of which, as in those of southern India, is the cell, a cubical apartment containing; tlic image. No light is admitted to this except by the door, and this is, in all great temples at least, preceded by a stpiare porch or mantapa, with a door on each face ; three opening towards the court, one to the cell. Other porches sometimes precede this one, but they are always detached buildings, or, if connected, it is only in a slight or temporary manner. 11 will be obsei'ved tliat the vimana is a very dilferently foinu'd ])uildin<>; fmin those we liave l)een describing as existing in the soutli.

no NOKTIIKKX lIIXDr AiaiUTKCTrin:. Book ll. If is luj lunj^er a pyramid in outline, and consisting of a dcfinilt.' niunbor of stories, crowned by a dome or dagoba ; the outline here is always curvilinear, the divisions vortical, and no trace of stories exists in any exanq)lc 1 am ac({uaintcd with, much less of the cells which give so distinct a peculiarity to the southern temples. The mode, too, of crowning the summit, though slightly domical in appearance, can never have been by a dome of construction, nor derived from the same original as those that crown the temples in the south. Possibly it is taken from- the IJuddhist umbrella ornament, the original, as we have seen, of the spire or tee. Possibly it c-ame in the first instance from some projecting fomi of wooden or metallic roofing. Nor can the other characteristics of tliis stylo of architecture be traced with any certainty to their origin. Whatever it was, all the translbnuations were gone through, and the style was as comjilete as it now^ is, when the great temple of Bobaneswar was built, no change having taken place since then, except in detail ; and we must, therefore, look either for some earlier example, or some cognate style, if we Avould attempt to tj'ace it to its souice. Some of these towers — such for instance Jis the great one at Bobaneswar ; that of the Temple of Juggeniath, built 1 1 98, and the now ruined one of the Black Pagoda, erected in 1241 — reached the height of 170 to 180 ft. At Bobaneswar alone more than 100 of these temples still exist, ranging from 50 or 60 ft. to 150 ft.-- their proportions being very similar to those of the temple repiesented in the last woodcut (No. 70). The porches of the gieat tenii)les are nearly all similar to that of the Black Pagoda, at once the richest and the only one easily accessible to Europeans. It is a square building, about 60 ft. from angle to angle, and the pei-pendicuJar part about the same in height. On each tace is a projecting doonvay very richly ornnnu-nted. and the whole walls are covered with scul])ture of an elaborate minuteness, only rivalled by that of Boro Buddor, though singularly different in character; this being, as far as the human figures are concejued. obscene in the extreme— while not the remotest trace of arivthin

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Chap. II. r.AI!i;(>l.l>l, 111 only partially falleu, tlioiigli it. is difficult to guess how stones of tlie ri'cpiired k'ugtli could have been either raised or Kup])orted. fSonietimcs the porch consists of a small portico of two or more pillars ; but this arrangement is only found in the smallest and most modern temples, the style being essentially astylar, or devoid of pillars of any sort. The great tem]iles are all surroiuided by square courts, enclosed by high walls, perfectly plain externally, but internally oiTiamented no doubt by cloisters or colonnades, the precise character of which it is difficult to determine, as the Orissans are singularly jealous of admitting I'iuropeans to their sacred precincts, and at the Black Pagoda and other desecrated shrines the enclosure has geneially disappeared. Temples in Upper India. The temples found in the up])er provinces of India are all smaller than the great temples of Orissa, and utterly insignificant in size as compared with those of southern India; still they are elegant in dfsigi), and. though few in number, they aie almost the only landmarks Ave have to guide ns through the dark labyrinth of Indian history in the middle ages. " '^'l^^^^fc^.^^.-^i^^ . -i I cniplo at BaiTolli. From a

112 NORTUKRN HINDU AHCHITECTUHE. Book JI. One of the most elegant of these is the now desecrated temple of BaiTolli, situated in a wild and romantic spot, near the falls of the Chunibul, whose distant roar in the still night is the only sonnd that breaks the silence vl' the solitude that sniTonnds them. The jirincipal temjde, represented in the woodcut No. 71, was erected probably in the eighth or ninth centur3% and is one of the few of that age now kno'VATi which were originall}' dedicated to Siva. Its general outline is identical with that of the Orissan temples. But instead of the enclosed j)oreh, or mantajxi, it has here a pillared portico of great elegance, whose roof reaches half way up the temple, and is sculptured with a richness and complexity of design that is almost unrivalled even in those days of patient prodigality of Libour. It will be obsei-vcd in the ])lan that the dimensions are lemaikably small, and the temple is barely ()(i ft. high, so that its merit consists entii-ely in its sliajie and proportions, and in the elegance and profusion of the ornament that covere it. "^ ■'.^^^.. W. to to ao _i /M ^Oft VI. rianof 'remi)le lU liarroUi. From drawings by the Aullior. In front of the temple is a detached porch, here called a Chaori, or nuptial hall (the same word I believe as Choultry in the south), in which tradition records the marriage of a Hoon (Hun) prince to a liajjjoot 11 i bride, for which puipose it is said to have been erected;' but whether this is su or not, it is one of the finest examples of those detached halls kno^\^l in the north. We miss here the octagonal dome of the Jains, which would have given elegance and relief to its ceiling as well as variety to the sjjacing of the columns, and to the width of the aisles. These peculiarities were seldom if ever copied by the Hindus, Init they seem to have attempted to gain sufficient relief to their othenvise monotonous arrangement of columns by breaking up the external outline of the plan of the mantapa, and by ranging the ai.sles diagonally across the building, instead of placing them parallel to the sides. In cme instance, as Chandravati, not far from the la.st described, something more artistic has been attempted, as may be seen by the annexed plan, No. 73. It is older probably by some centuries than that at BaiTolli, and, though sadly ruined, is the most elegant ' Toil's Aniial.s of li^ijastaii, vol. ii. y. 71-.

Chap. II. BHUMNAK CAVE. 113 specimen of columnar architecture (so far as I know) in TTpper hulia. The most clog-ant ])art of it is the roof, the central square having be(;n covered with a (piasi dome, on the principle shown in p. 74, the side compartments by large slabs deeply recessed, and covered with sculpture of the most singular elegance. The whole arrangement, however, of this portico may be said to be exceptional — the Barrolli one being by far the most usual — and is carried to even greater extent in some of the caves ; that at Elephanta, for instance, is only an amplification of it. The Dhumnar cave at Ellora (woodcut No. 74) closely resembles that at Elephanta in most respects, but is older and finer. It is 150 ft. in width, and its plan is that of a portico of 52 pillars ; but being cut in the rock, four are omitted to make way for a vimana, which should have been placed externally, as at Barrolli ; for the same reason also 12 of the outside pillars here become pilasters from' the nature of the situation in J/) 20 I IP 73. Temple at Chaiidravati. which the building is placed. It is nevertheless the largest portico of its class I know of, no built example reaching anything like its size. In more modern times, though the temples generally retain something of the same form, yet the tendency is always to make the upper jiart more slender, and more in the form of a spire than of a tower, and to ornament it by grouping around it smaller models of spires, as we before noticed in speaking of the Pegue Pagoda. This is sometimes carried to such an extent, and with such a minute elaboration of detail, as is (4. Dhumnar Lena Cave at EUoia. From Daiiiells Views in Hiiulostan. Scale lOo ft. to 1 in. ' See Illustrations of Ancient Architecture vol. ii. The plates are not numbered; the in Hindostan, pi. 6, from which the woodcut best, however, is the one reprcsenfinc; two is taken. See also Tod's Annals of Rajastlian, slabs of the roof of tiiis porch. I

114 NORTHERN HINDU ARCHITECTURE. Rook TT. almost inconceivable by those who have not seen it. Generally speakinpj, this profuse ornamentation is so managed, that the details do not interfere with the outline ; still their complexity takes away from anything like grandeur or greatness in design ; and though some of these temples may deserve to be called the prettiest edifices possible, they can claim no higlier merit. Another peculiarity is, that they sometimes bon-ow features from ]\fahomctan architectnro, imitating the domes and arcades of that style ; but even these very parts are assimilated so completely to their o^^^l style, that the amalgamation is almost always pleasing. Both these peculiarities are well illustrated in the Vishvesher temple at Benares — the principal one of • 'rcinple of VUlivesher, Bcniircs. I'roiu TriiiM-p s \'iL'.\a in Hcnares. No scale. that famous city, and said to bo the oldest, though the present edifice can scarcely number 100 years. Like the temple at Tinnevelly, and many others dedicated to Siva, it is a double temple ; the woodcut (No. 75) represents the plainest side, and omits one-half of the details,

Chap. TT. IMLLAHS. I I wliich it was impossible tv express to sncli a scale ; indeed, it is almost inconceivable liow mnch labour has been expended on a temple Avhose greatest leno-tb is only 47 ft., and greatest height 51 ft. : but such is the charaL'teristic of Indian art at the present day, which does not reach beyond the rank of exquisitely elegant littleness. In fomier times they went to work in a bolder and manlier style, and with an admirable perception of the proper adaptation of the means to the end, as is observable more especially in some of the rock-cut examples. At I^^llora, for instance, in one of the caves cut on the scarp of the Kylas, iho pillars are more massive than in our heaviest Norman examples, and are designed with a boldness unmatched in any columnar architecture I am acquainted with, as may be seen from the annexed representation (woodcut No. 76). In built temiiles and p(U-tieos there was I'iUai' ill Kylus, KMora. From u drawing by the Aiitlior. 77. Pillar in HarroUi. From a plat'' in Toil's Annals of rSajaslhan. no need for such massive pillars as in the rock-cut examples. Still, .al. Chandravati, and in the earliest buildings generall}', the pillars seldom exceed four or five diameters in height. They gradually become more and more attenuated as the style becomes more modern, taking veiy much the same form as those of the Buddhists and Jains, except that the Hindus use figure sculpture to a greater extent than was usual with their predecessors, as in the annexed example from Barrolli (woodcut No. 77), where 4 elegant female figures surrounding the base form the principal ornament of the shaft. This ]ullar has lost its bracket capital, Avhich is the invariable accompaniment of Indian pillars of every age and style, and is, after all, perhaps, the most I 2

116 NOinTIERN ITlXDr AKCTITTFXTURE. Rook II. elegant and appropriate mode of supporting an architrave that has yel been invented by the ingenuity of man. Mixed Hindu Style. During the existence of the earlier Patan dynasties of India, thf bigotry of the Mahometans did not admit of the Hindus erecting temples of any pretension in the great cities over whieli tlicy had obtained the dominion, and it is only in remote comers of the coimtiy that we detect here and there isolated examples of the style. \Vith the beneficent and tolerant reign of the Great Akbar (1556 to 1605), a new era dawne.- modern temple foin of the Hindus. The change, how

CiiAi-. II. CENOTAPHS. i 17 c'\f]-, was punuiuiL'Ut iu the

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118 NOKTHKKX HINDU ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 79. Chuttrie at Ahvar. From a sketch by the Authur. more elegant than this, and are built wholly of the fine yellow sandHtone of the district in wliich they stand. But this instance appears most characteristic uf the modem form of ;irt, and the Bhnrlpore style is best exemplified in their palaces, of which moie hereafter, ^^'e find in tliis example a new and remarkable form, which the Hindus introduced, and the Mahometans aftei-wards adopted, which is the curious curvilinear roof of the central compartment. This is peculiar to India, and is copied from the bamboo-roofed huts of the lower provinces, whose elasticity recpiires them to be bent, that they may have the requisite firmness. In them it is singidarly graceful, but it requires long habit to accustom the eye to it in stone. In small examples it is extremely pleasing, but on a large scale it has a quaint appearance that it is almost impossiltle to get over. Palaces. It is not 80 much in their tcmp]es or tombs as in their palaces that the modern Hindus have displayed their architectural magnificence. Every little cajiital jiossesses a regal residence of more or less ])retcnsion, and every hill-top, in some of the native states, is crowned AN-ith hunting-seats or sunnner-j)alaces. Some of these, such as those of .Icypore and Oudeypore, are of great extent and magnificence ; but,

CllAl\ il. PALACES. 119 hirgu or small, all are designed with that exquisite feeling fur grace tjf outline whieh eharaeterises the Hindus in all ages, and all are uniamented with that profusion of elaborate detail which extreme cheapness of labour enables them to bestoAv on their largest as on their smallest Avorks. Among these, by far the most beautiful as an architectural object is the garden-palace of Dceg, erected by Sooraj jMuII, the virtual founder of the Bhurtporc dynasty in the middle of the last century. It wants, it is true, the massive character of the fortified palaces of other Kajpoot states, but for gi-andeur of conception and beauty of detail it surpasses them all. The whole palace was to have consisted of a rectangular enclosure, twice the length of its breadth, surroimded with buildings, with a garden in the centre. Only half of this has been completed, the square being 170 by 120 paces, crossed in the centre by ranges of the most beautiful fountains and parterres laid out in the formal style of the East, interspersed with architectural ornaments of the most elaborate finish. The pavilion on the north side contains the great audience-hall, 76ft. Sin. by 54 ft. 7 in., divided in the centre by a noble range of arcades, behind which are the principal dwelling apartments, two, and in some parts thi-ee, stories in height. Opposite this is a pavilion occupied principally by fountains. On one side stands a marble hall attached to an older palace facing the principal pavilion, which was meant to occupy the centre of the garden. As will be seen by the plan (woodcut No. 80) it is a parallelogram of 1 52 ft. by 87 ft., each end occupied by a small liut very elegant range of apartments, in two stories ; the central hall (108 ft. by 87 ft.) is supported by 4 rows of columns, and open at both sides ; at each end is a marble reservoir for fountains, and a similar one exists externally on each side. The whole is roofed with stone, except the central part, whieh, after being contracted by a bold cove, is roofed with a tlat ceiling of timber exquisitely carved. This wooden ceiling seems to have been considered a defect, nothing but stone being used in any other part of the palace. The architect therefore attempted to roof the corresponding pavilion of the unfinished court with slabs of stone 34 ft. in length, and 18 in. square. Some of these still exist in their places, but the weight was too great for the arcades, only 18 in. thick, and even that not of solid stone, but of two facings 4 or 5 in. thick, and the intermediate spaces filled in with rubble. ■ Besides this, though the form of the arch is literally copied from the Mahometan style, neither here, nor elsewhere throughout the palace, is there a single tnie arch, the ojienings being virtually covered by two brackets meeting in the centre. The general aj)pearance of the arcades of these buildings may be characterised as more elegant than rich. The glory of Deeg, however. 80. Hall at Dcesr. From a plan by lUe Aulhur.

120 NOHTHEHN HINDU AKCHITECTUKE. Book II. consists in the coniices. wliicli here are generally double, a peculiarity nut seen elsewhere, and for extent of shadow and richness of detail surptuis any similar ornaments in India, either in ancient or mcdem buildings. The lower cornice is the usual sloping entablatm-e, almost universal in such buildings. This was adopted apparently because it took the sk»])e of the curtains, which almost invariably hang beneath its projecting shade, and _=^: - which when dra^^^l out seem almost a continuation of it. The upper comice, which was horizontal, is peculiar to Deeg, and seems designed to furnish an extension of the flat rt)of. which in Eastern palaces is usually considered the best apait)ueut uf the house : biit whether designed for this or any other |iur|)ose, it adds singularly to the richness of the effect, and by the double shadow affords a relief and character seldom exceeded even in the East. Generally speaking, the arcades of Deeg are neither so rich nor so appropriate as the bold bracket capitals of their older styles. That the liracket is almost exclusively an original Indian form of capital can, I think, scarcely be doubted ; but the svstem was carried much further by the Moguls, especially din-ing the reign of Akbar, than it had ever been carried by its original inventore, at least in the North. The Hindus, (tn receiving it back, luxuriated in its picturesque richness with a boldness that astonishes every beholder ; and half the effect of most of the modem buildings of India is owing to the bold projecting balconies and fanciful kiosks that diversify the otherAvisc plain walls. The accompanying example (woodcut •No. 81), from the obsei-A-atoiy erected by .ley Sing (a. r«. I(;ii8-1742) at Benares, is a rich and elegant specimen of the style, though hardly Kl. Rulcuny «t the (^ibscrvatury, I5^■llill.^^. the late .James I'rinsep. • liawiiip l)y

c;iiAi'. II. GHxVr^. 121 so elegant as some of the Moslem examples which are found at Agia, Delhi, and in the nt'iij;]d)()nih(>od of tliese two capitals. I'lit wlu-ther used by Moslems or Hindus, these balconies have a very pleasing eft'cct. They relieve the monotony of the plain fece of a building, without interfering with its main lines, or requiring any great constructive skill t'nr its introduction. Landing-places or Ghats. Another object of architectural magTiificence peculiar to northern Hindostan, is the construction of the ghats that everywheie line the river-banks in most of the great cities, more especially those which are situated on the Ganges. Benares possesses perhaps tlu; greatest number of edifices of this class ; but from Calcutta to Hurdwar no city is witlu)ut some specimens of this species of architectural display. The Ghoosla Ghat at Benares (woodcut No. 82), though one of the most «2. Ghoosla Gh&t, Benares. From Prinsep's Views. modern, may be taken as a fair specimen of the class, though many are richer and much more elaborately adorned. Their olijc^ct being to aftbrd easy access to bathers, the tiiglit of steps in front is in reality the ghat and main building itself. These are generally broken, as in this instance, by small projections, often crowned by kiosks, which take oflf the monotony inherent in long lines of narrow steps. This tlight of stairs is always backed by a building, which in most instances

1J2 NuirrilKlJX ULNDL: AllCHlTECTUKE. Book II. is uicrcly an object of arehitoctiiiiil (Usi)Uiy, wnthont any particnlar (k'stinatiun, except to alfonl slielter froiu tlie rays of the sun to sneli of the idle as choose to avail theiuselves

Chap. II. DAMS. 12:5 Dams. In the same manner the buntls or dams of the artitieial lakes, or great tiinks, whieh are so necessary for irrigation, are often made works of groat architectural magnificence, first by covering them with flights of steps, like those of the ghats, and then erecting, in the breaks between these flights, temples or pavilions, and ki(jsks, interspersed with fountains and statues. AVhere all these are of marble, as is sometimes the case in Kajpootana,' the whole makes up as perfect a piece of architectural combination as any the Hindus can boast of. It would be tedious, however, to enumerate, without illustrating rhem — Avhich the limits of this work will not admit of — all the modes (if architectural magnificence of the Hindus. Like all people untrammelled by rules and gifted with a feeling for the beaiitiful, they adom whatever they requiie, and convert every object, however utilitarian in its purposes, into an object of beauty, knowing well that it is not temples and palaces alone that are capable of such display, but that ever_)i;liing which man makes may become beautiful, provided the hand of taste be guided by sovmd judgment that never forgets what the object is, and never conceals the constructive exigencies of the building itself. It is sunply this inherent taste and love of beauty, which the Indians seem always to have possessed, directed by unaffected honesty of purpose, which enables those who are now without independence, or knowledge, or power, to erect, even at the present day, buildings that will bear comparison with the best of those erected in Europe during the middle ages. It must bo confessed that it would require far more comprehensive illustration than the preceding slight sketch of so extensive a subject can pretend to, to make this as apparent to others as it is to any one who has personally visited the objects of interest with which India abounds. ' Two specimens of Bunds of this sort are given in the Pictui'esque Illustrations of Indian Architecture, plates xii. and xiii.

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Ili4 iiiM>r A];(iii'i'i:("rrj!K. Book II (^ H A P T E R r T r. CASllMEEK. CONTKNTS. Style of Architecture — Temples at Martuud — Pandrethan — Payech, &c. CimoXOLOGY. DATES. Asuku i-stublislius BuUdliUni : iiiscriptiuii at Kapiir tli Giri u.c. 250 Mibiriiula invades Ceylon 105 Migaliavahana iiiviU'S Ijauddhas, and iiivjules Ceylon a.i>. 434 lliruiiya contemporary Baliaram Caur Viiranaditya, &c 440 Ilaiiaditya married daughter of Chola Kiya ; Imilds Maniind alMRit BOO Tratapulilya foiuids liralapapar alwut . 650 DATIiS. Salitaditya builds enclosure at .Mariund . \.i>. Ibi Jayapira man-ies daughter of Jayauta of Ganr hl4 Avanti Verma builds Temple at Avaiitiixjre H90 I'artha, his minister, Iniill Temple at I'andrethan about 1000 Xemagupta destroyed \'iharas of Buddbist-s 1030 Alia Uddceii : Moslem conquest of Cashmeer 1300 'I'liK liiist division of Intliau arcliitecturc whicli remains to be oxauiined is that of I'aslimeer, which, though scarcely of much importance in itself, still posaesses some peculiarities well worthy of attention, and eonsequently some account of it is necessary in a work professing to treat of all styles. Our knowledge both of the inhabitants and of tlie aichitecture of Cashmeer is very limited. The people seem to be quite distinct from the Hindus on one side and from the Persians on the other. There is reason to believe that they are nearly connected by race Avith tlie inhabitants of the Tinijab, and traces of their architecture are found tliioughout that important district.' The authentic histoiy of Ca«hmeer, as of almost every other countiy of India, begins with Asoka, though its annals stretch back, with .something like authenticity, to a ( Jonerda, who was contemporary with the Mahabarat or great war in the twelfth or (hiiteenth century B.C. Their principal historical volume, however, the Raja Tarangini, first ' Our infonnation with regard to the an-hitecture of Cashmeer is derived principally from (1) the enj^ravings in Vigne's Travels ill Cashnieer, and which, iinfortnnately, arc veiy inferior to hisoriginal drawings, which ;ire bt'autiful and accurate; (2) a memoir l>y Major A. Cunningham, of the Bengal Kngincers, pulilished in the .lournal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, .Sept. 1848. The drawings accompanying this memoir are hy far our principal guide on this subject. (3) A paper by l'n\>i. Abbot, in a sub.'^eqiient nunrber of the same journal. He gives drawings of examples which he found in the Punjab, which are our i)nncipal ;iulhoiity for the belief tliat the style of t'ashmeer and that of the Punjab are identical.

C'liAP. Til. CASIIMEER. 12.begins ti) detail events when it speaks of the introduction of Biiddliisiu into the valley by Asoka. This has been remarkably confirmed by the discovery of a copy of his edicts at Kapur di (Jiri in rcshawnr, showing that his power extended even beyond the Indus in this diiection. To what extent the new doctrine was embraced by the inhabitants of the valley- we do not know, nor how long it remained the state religion ; nor need we stop here to inquii-e, for not one vestige of their monuments has yet been brought to light. They can scart'cly have erected topes of any imp(.)rtance, or something of them would remain ; ' but then, they may have possessed no relics, and, if Buddha did not visit their valley, no sacred s])ot to commemorate, while it is more than l)rol table that their halls and temples were constructed of Deodar pine, which still is the principal material used in the erection of mosques and public buildings throughout Cashmeer, and these of course have pei'ished. There are no remains now existing in the countiy which can with any certainty be ascribed to an earlier date than the middle of the eighth century. The annexed woodcut, (No. 83) will explain most of the peculiarities of the style. It is taken from Major Cunningham's memoir, and represents a small model of a Cashmeer temple placed on a pillar, an object common in Bengal, as well as in this country. The temi)]c in this instance is surmounted by four roofs, though in all the built examples known there are only two, and it is obvious that they are copied from the usual wooden roofs commcm to most buildings in Casluncer, where the upper pyramid covers the central part of the building, the lower a verandah, separated from the centi-e either by walls or merel}^ l)y a range of pillars.^ In the wooden examples the interval between the two roofs seems to have been left open for light and air ; in the stone buildings it is closed with ornaments. Jjesides this, however, all these roofs are relieved b}' dormer windows, of a pattern very similar to those found in mediaeval buildings in Europe, and the same steep, sloping lines are used also to cover doorways and porches, being virtually a section of the main roof itself, and evidently a copy of the same wooden construction. The pillars which sup])ori tlie portico and the one on which the model stands are by far the most striking peculiarit\of this style, their shafts being almost identical with those of tlie Grecian CROIINO LEVEL S3. 1.6:!" > Model of Temple in Cashmeer. ' When Huiang Sung visited Cashmeer about 6.30 .v.n. BudcUiism w.as still tlourishing iu the valley. lie mention.'; tour Tojies, but not apparently of great ini])ortanco. '■' .See drawing of nio.^que bv Vi'jne, vol. i. p. 2fi9 ; and also J. A. S. B., 1848, p. 2r,:\, containing Major A. Cunnhighanrs ]);iper on the .subject, from which this ami the tliree following woodcuts are taken.

120 HiXDr AP.nnTErTURE. Book TI. Doric, ami wliolly unlike anything found in any other ]i!irt uf India. Generally they are from 3 to 4 diameters in height, diminishing slightly towards tlie capital, and adonied with lO Antes, rather shallower than those of the ( irecian order, lioth these bases and capitals are, it is tnie, far more complicated than would have been tolerated in Greece, but at Paestum and in Eome we find with the Doric order a complexity of mouldings by no means unlike that found here. At all events we find in ('ashuK>cr no trace of the bracket ca])ital of the Hindus, nor of the changes from square to octagon, or to the i)

Chap. TTI. MARTUND. 127 valley, and is at least as old as the last-named date, and possibly, in pait at least, three centuries earlier. As will be seen by the annexed ])lan, it is of the nsnal form of Hindu temples ; a vimana with its cell, an antarala or pronaos, and mantapa or porch. It has two wings, which are peculiar, but seem to have been joined to the main facade, so as to give it breadth, and possibly also height ; for they are solid in their constniction, and both now incline outwards, as if their superincumbent mass had been too heavy for their foundations. No trace of the roof remains, which led the Baron Hugel to conjecture that it never had one. This Major Cunningham disputes ; and the most probable supposition seems to be that it was of wood, and has perished, or, like some of those in the south, it may have been constructed of badly burnt bricks, which have decayed. The lower part which exists is similar in all respects to the other temples of the same class fomid aroinid it. The enclosure that surrounds the temple is very remarkable. Tliough in ruins, we can make out its original design. The internal dimensions of the court were 220 ft. by 142 ; the number of pillars 84 — a sacred number with the Hindus. Between each TrT]rr\(T\m^m m )Uli|ili:i|llil 85. Central Cell ulCiurt nt i\Iai(uii(I. From a drawing by Major A. Cunninphani. No swIp.

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128 TTlXm' ARCHITErTURE. Rook II. pair was a cell, more like those of the Jaina temples than anything ])nroly Hindu ; indeoil. if we may trust such drawings as we have, the friezes are onianiont(Ml with cross-legged figures, which could only have belonged to that sect ; but 1 fear the drawings are hardly to be trusted. In front of the temple was the great gateway, of which onlj- the fonndation remains ; but in the centre of each side of the conrt was a cell more im]iortant than the rest, probably resembling the gTcat gateway. One of these with the niche on its side is showii in the annexed woodcut (85), and shows mo.st of the peculiarities of the style — the straight p_>Tamidal roof, the Doric-like shafts, here loaded with enormous capitals, but still with ornaments familiar to the student of Greek art ; the straightlined pedimented doorway ; and more especially the trefoiled arch, which is so constant a characteristic : — all features unlike anything else in India, and pointing to a foreign style mixed np with local constrnctive peculiarities.' There are, besides this temple, at least 10 or 12 others in the valley, all rrocted before its con(piest by Alla-u-deen (a.p. 1 300), some of which are nearly as extensive, but none either so old or so perfect, nor arc their histori(^s t'ven so well known as the history of this ; and as they do not illustiatc any new points, it would be tedious to enumerate them here. One only seems to have remained quite perfect, and to retain all its peculiarities — that of Payech. A still older temple, and one which more perfectly illustrates the peculiarities of the style, is that of Pandrethan, erected in the 10th century, and 86. Temple at randrethan. From a drawing by Miijur A. CuiiniDgliani. ' It is not a little singular, however, that tlie only tpmple I know of in India th.it resembles tills one either in plan or arrangement is the smaller temple of Conjeveram in the Chola country near Madras ; and it is curious that both tlie Raja T.arinifani, the Ca-shmeer histoiy, and that of the Ciiola country mention that l.'anaditya married a tlauv'hter of the C'liola king, and assisted in forminc an acjucduct from the Caiivery — showing at least an mtimacv which may have arisen from that affinity of race and religion, which, overleaping the intruded Ariaiis, united the two extiemitics of India in one common bond. The style of the two tem]ilps is, it is true, ditl'erent ; but when I saw the one I did not know of the existence of the other, and did not, as I now would do, examine the details with that care which alone would enable anv one to j>ronounce definitely regarding their atlinities.

Chai'. in. KRCAriTULATION. 129 which, though niined, still preserves the characteristics of the Cashlueeriau style with singular distinctness. (Captain Abbot's examples from MuUote in Potowar between the Indus and the Jelum are only interesting as showing the same style existing on the plains, instead of being confined wholly to the secluded valley of Cashmeer. No doubt many other examples will soon be brought to light, now that the coimtry is in our hands, and some probably which may enable us to trace nearer to its origin a style of so much interest. The architecture of Cashmeer was quite mdcnown till about the }ear 1830. Notwithstanding this it. has attracted a great deal of attention. Its close resemblance' in many points to the Grecian style, its striking difference from the buildings of all neighbouring nations, fully account for this. We must remember that the inhabitants of this remote valley were an Indian people protected by their situation from the violent changes to which the inhabitants of the plains were exposed. We are therefore prepared to expect that the history of this district will illustrate that of the great Indian people in manj^ important respects ; and such we find to be the case. The Eaja Tarangini has been pronounced by the best authorities to be the best, if not the only, true history of an Indian race that has reached our time. But, if I mistake not, the architecture of this land may even now throw more light on the subject than even that famed chronicle of her earlier kines. ^»'Recapitulation. Having now gone through all the different phases which Indian architecture has assumed from the earliest period at which we become acquainted with it till the present time, it only remains, in conclusion, to recapitulate, in a few words, the more salient points to which attention has been directed. It has been sho^^Ti that the history of Indian architecture commences not earlier than the middle of the third century before Christ, when Asoka made Buddhism the state religion of India, and sought to commemorate the fact, not only by inscriptions, but by monumental columns and other lasting memorials, some of which remain to oin- da}'. It then begins with a strong admixture of Grecian, or at least of Western art, as if the Indians were then first learning from foreigners an art they had not pvm'iously practised ; but this extraneous element soon died out, and is not again to be traced, except perhaps in Cashmeer, where it seems to have long remained in force. From the time of Asoka till nearly that of the Mahometan conquest there exists no difficulty in tracing the whole histor}^ of Buddhist art — a complete series of examples existing in the caves and topes : Avhich, taken in connexion with those of Afghanistan and Ceylon, and other buildings, amply suffice to elucidate the subject. From that time to the present day we find abundance of examples in Buimah, Thibet, and Nepal, which, with collateral illustrations fi'om Java and elsewhere.

180 HINDU AHCHITECTUEE. Book 11. eimljle lis fo tiiice tlie history ul" the Buddhist styk; thvuiigh more tliau 2000 years. There is every reason to believe that from the bnihliugs themselves, and from the paintings and scnlptnres with which they are adorned, the whole histoiy of this impoilant sect may be restored with the utmost distinctness and certainty. In India tliis style was succeeded by that of the Jains, though this latter seems scarcely to have arisen out of the former, but to be the lineal descendant oi some older style whose traces have not yet been detected farther back than the 9th or 10th centnrv, though some may ])r(ibably still exist between India and the western jtarts of Asia. If tlie Jaina Imildings want the manly vigour and boldness of the Budc homctan conquest, .ind that consequently the ■liscovered eventually that C'ashmeer and the ('ashmeerian style should virtually be elassed Punjaub were .laina at the time of the Ma- under this head.

CiiAi-. III. RECAPITULxVTION. l:'.I forms were iiiijuovrd by tho addition. It is now sinking nndor our intluenco, till it is little better lliau a caricature of its former self. In Caslunecr there still exists another style, differing from all these, showing, in the first place, a people secluded from the rest, perhaps retaining its earliest forms unchanged, or at all evenls owning different influences and practising a different art from any of the people around. When properly investigated, it may throw new and unexpected light on this hitherto obscure subject. Much, however, very much, still remains to be done, before the subject of Indian art can either be luiderstood or be placed on a satisfactory footing of scientific induction. No works have yet been published exclusively devoted to the subject, except, I am sorry to say, my own ; and mine is imperfect not only from tho impossibility of one situated as I was effecting more without aid, but also from the great difficulty of publishing such works in this coiuitry, where the subject interests so few. Were the above sketch doubled or trebled in length, and the illustrations increased tenfold — for which materials exist— Indian architecture might rank Math the known styles of the rest of the world. As it is, it is almost impossible to find any one either capable of giving an opinion on this class of art, or even of explaining the ground on which an opinion of its merits or defects should rest. It stands so completely alone, so entirely separate from the other forms of architecture of the world, that it cannot well be compared with any of them, without the risk of false and erroneous impressions being conveyed, more likely to mislead than to instruct. It does not, however, possess either the solid gTandeur and simple magnificence of the Egyptian style, or any of that sublime aspiration after eternity that strikes with awe every visitor to the valley of the Nile. It would be as reasonable to compare the Indian epics aiid dramas Avith those of Homer and Sophocles as to compare tho Indian style of architecture with the refined elegance and intellectual sui)criority of the Parthenon and other great works of Greece. Probably a nearer comparison might be instituted with the Gothic styles of the middle ages ; yet, while possessing the same rich irregularity and defiance of all rule, it wants that bold manliness of style and loftiness of as]-»iration which dignifies even the rudest attempts of those enthusiastic religionists. Though deficient in these respects, the Indian styles are unrivalled for patient elaboration of the details, Avhich are always designed with elegance, and always executed with care. The very extent of ornamentation produces feelings of astonishment, and the smaller examples are always pleasing from the elegance of the jiarts and the appropriateness of the whole. In no styles is the last characteristic more nrarked than in those of India ; for whether the architects had to uphold a mountain of rock or the airiest donio, or merely an ornamental screen work, hi all instances the pillars arc exactly proportioned to the work they have to do, and the oniiinicnts are equally suited to the apparent strength o)- lightness of effect wliich the positiim of the mass seems to require. No affectation, and no imitntion of other styles, ever interfere to prevent the purpose-like cxpi-ession

i:V2 HINDU ARCHITECTURE. Rook 11. of every part, and the effect consequently is alwaj'^s satisfactory and pleasing, and, when the extent is sufficient, produces many of tlie best and hii^hest laodes of expression of which the art of architectiu'c is anywhere eai>able. It may be that persons who have not had an opportunity of studying the buildings on the spot may not be inclined to fonn so favourable an estimate of the Indian styles as that here expressed ; and, indeed, without actual inspection, no sufficient means exist for fonning a correct judgment on the subject at all. But whether the architecture be really good or onlj'- passable, it is interesting as the art of a large portion of the human family. It affords the only means of judging correctly of the state of civilization and power of a jieople whose history is lost, or is so obscixre as to be almost illegiljle. It shoidd also interest the student, as showing Ikjw numerous and various the fonus are which may be used for architectural purposes, and each as appropriate as any of those he is already familiar with : for, though men do not now believe, as they did a few years ago, that there are only five different forms of a pillar admissible, they do not yet know how numerous are the ways in which pillars may bo employed. The adaptation of every part to the thousand different pui-poses to which it maj^ be applied necessarily causes an infinite variety. This in fact is the great secret of architectural propriety, but which the Indian and Gothic architects seem alone fully to have appieciated. To these points we shall have frequent occasion to return hereafter. In the mean while we must pass on to other styles, created to suit the exigencies of other climates, and to express the feelings of other races of mankind.

Chap. 1. CHINA. 133 BOOK III. CHAPTER 1. CHINA. CONTENTS. General Remarks — Pagodas — Pailoos — Tombs — Domestic Architecture Temples. The Chinese differ from all European nations, not only in the objects they propose to attain by their arts, and in the forms in which they seek to embody their conceptions, but also in the processes by which they carry them out. Hence, to write generally on their arts and sciences, in a manner to be intelligible, would require us to go into great detail, and to employ illustration to a very great extent. But the particular art with which our subject is concerned reqiiires, and indeed admits, but very little to be said of it. The simple fact is, that China possesses scarcely anything worthy of the name of architecture. This is of importance as enabling us to understand how, in other countries, as in ancient India, a high degree of civilization may have been attained without producing anj^ coeval monuments of durable character. A priori, it certainly may seem strange that the Chinese should not have excelled in this art, for they are and always were most extensive builders, as may be seen by the massive walls that surround all their cities, and the great one that half surrounds their country. Their land is full of bridges and embankments, and engineering works of all sorts, showing a power of cutting stone and granite, and a science of building, hardly surpassed by even the Egyptians themselves. All these great works are wholly devoid of either architectural design or ornament. In India such works would liave been rendered ten times more admirable for their art than for their mass or extent. Here, however they may subserve to their utilitarian pui-pose — this aim gained, no aesthetic beauty is eitlier sought for or attained. This certainly does not arise from inability, for no people on earth carve granite with such facility and precision as the Chinese, not even excepting the inhabitants of southern India ; and nowhere is skilled labour so cheap, and time so little tliought of, as in China. Hence the absence of art must arise from want of taste, not want of power. The

l''^4 CHINESK AlfCHITECTURE. Book III. truth seems to be, that they are a people naturally excelling in constructive talent, and in all technic arts, but wholly devoid of either {esthetic feeling or desire to share in that higher class of Inunaii utterance. This natit>nal idiosyncracy is no doubt the real fiuidauicntal cause (if this absence of architectural, remains. Otlier causes may be assigned which contributed to the same result. In the first place, the Cliincse never had either a dominant priesthood or a hereditary nobility. Tlie absence of the former class is a veiy important cousider;ition, because, in all countries where architecture has been carried to anything like perfection, it is to sacred art that it owes its liighest inspiration, and sacred art is never so strongly developed as un

C'liAr. I. TAGUDAS. i;j5 tlioso foitalices, or furtifiod mansions, wliich by their mass and solidity give such a marked character to a certain chiss of domestic edifices in our own country. Equality, peace, and toleration, aio blessings whoso value it would be difficidt to over-estimate ; but on the dead though pleasing level where they exist, it is in vain we look for the rugged sublimity of the mountain, or the terrific gi-andeur of the storm. The Chinese have chosen the humbler path of life, and Avith singular success. Considering their number, there is not perhaps a more industrious or happier people on the face of the globe ; but they are at the same time singularly deficient in every element of greatness, either political or ai"tistic. Notwithslauding all this, it certainly is curious to find the oldest civilized people now existing on the face of the globe wholly without any monuments to record the past, or any desire to convey to posterity a worthy idea of their present greatness. It is no less remarkable to find the most populous of nations, and a nation in which millions are always seeking employment, never thinking of any of those higher mt)des of expression which Avould serve as a means of multiplying occupation, and of elevating while it is feeding the masses ; and still more startling to find wealth, such as the Chinese ])0SRess, never invested in self-glorification, by individuals erecting for themselves monuments which shall astonish their contemporaries, and hand down their names to posterity. It has been said that Chinese architecture is a very barren subject. In one respect, however, it is instructive, as the Chinese are the only people who now employ polychromy as an essential part of their architecture ; so much so, that colour is with them far more essential than fonn ; and certainly the result is so singularl}' pleasing and satisfactory, that for the lower grades of art it can hardly be doubted but that it should always be so. It is almost as certain that, for the higher grades of art, colour, though most valuable as an accessory, is incapable of the same lofty power of expression which form conveys to the human mind. Pagodas. The only buildings in China that really desei've to be classed as architectuial objects are the 9-storied pagodas, or Taos as they aie more properly called, which form such conspicuous and characteristic objects in every view of Chinese scenery. It has been before stated' that these taas are in fact on\j exaggerated tees or spires ; and, without going further, tlu> illustrations of this work alone are nearly sufiicient to trace them back to their origin. In woodcut Ko. 14, for instance, we have a 3-storied tee, not very dissimilar from a Chinese example. Woodcut No. 15 shows one with 7 such rims, and the 9-storied tower at Chittore (Avoodcut Ko. 56) brings us so near the Chinese pagodas that further proof seems almost superfluous. Of those now known to exist in China, by fai- the iinest. as well as ' Sec IP. -'1.

136 CHINESE AllClIlTECTUKE. Book III. the best known, is the celebrated porcehiin tower at Nankin. Commenced in the year 1412, and finished in 1431, it was erected as a monument of gratitude to an empress of the Ming family, and is now in conse(]neuce generally tailed the Temple of Gratitude. It is octagonal in f(jrm, 236 ft. in height, of which, liowever, about 30 ft. must be deducted for the iron spire which siinuounts it, leaving little more than 200 ft for the elevation of the building, or about the height of the jMonmnent of London. From the summit of the spire 8 chains depend, to each of which are attached 9 bells, and a bell is also attached to each angle of the lower roofs, making 144 bells in all, which, when tinkling m hannony to the evening breeze, must produce an effect as sinS7. Porcelain Tower, Nankin. gular aS pleasing. It is not, however, either to its dimensions or its bells that the tower owes its celebrity, but to the coating of porcelain which covers its brick walls, as well as the upper and Tuider sides of the i)rojecting roofs, which mark the division of each storj'. This produces a brilliancy of effect which is tt>tally lost in all the representations of it yet published, but which is in fact the class of ornament on which the architect almost Avholly relied for ])roducing the effect he desired, and without which it is a mere skeleton of a design. Ancilher celebrated pagoda is that known as 'Second Bai' Pagoda,' on the Canton river. It is a pillar of victory, erected to commemorate a naval victoiy which the Chinese claim to have gained near the spot. It is in design nearly identical with that last described, but of smaller dimensions, and now fast falling to niin. Besides these, almost every town of importance in China possesses one or more such structures, differing in dimensions and in the greater or less richness of their ornaments, but so like one another in design that it is impossible Ironi such drawings as have been published to make out anything like a sef^uence or even a difference; thcv must ihcroforo. with Porcelain Tower, Nankin.

Chap. I'AILOOS. 137 Dili- present knowledge, l>e regarded as exaetly similar to one aiiotlier. Besides these great towers, however, there are many ot only 3 or 7 stories, and of very small dimensions, but, whatever their height or size, the same design runs through them all. It is extremely difficult to form a coiTect estimate of the artistic merits of these towers. Anything so original and so national must be interesting from that circumstance alone, and it seems almost impossible to build anything in a tower-like fonn of great height, whether as a steeple, a minar, or a pagoda, which shall not form a pleasing object even from its salience and aspiring character alone, without any I'eal artistic mei'it in itself. Besides these qualifications, I cannot but think that the taiiering octagonal form, the boldly-marked divisions, the domical roof, and general consistence in design and ornament, of these towers, entitle them to rank tolerably high among the tower-like buildings of the world. Pailoos. The Pailoos, or, as they are commonly but erroneously called, triumphal arches, form another object of Chinese architecture, which, from its constant recurrence in views of Chinese scenery, is almost as familiar to us as the pagoda. These are. in fact, monuments to deceased persons of distinction, generally of widows who have not married a second time, or of virgins who have died unmarried. The smaller and less important ones consist merely of two upright posts of wood or granite, supporting a flat board with an inscription,' like, both in purpose and design, to the wooden rails which are used as substitutes for tombstones in some districts of England. The more important Pailoos have three openings, surmounted by several boards with more or less ornament and carving. Sometimes they are wholly of wood : in others no material is used but stone, generally granite ; and these two materials are combined in various proportions in other examples. Sometimes they are raised on platforms, as in the annexed example, from a ^^^*a\ «B*^55 8S. Pailoo near Canton. From .1 sketcli by the Author. ' GutzlalT, 'China Opened,' vol. ii.

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138 (JHINESK A \ivn ITKCTURE. r.00K III. j)oculiaily gTiieet'iil uiie near Canton ; at other times they are jdaced on the ground, and even across roads, so as to form archways, it" so they may be called, though certainly not triumphal ones. Oni; of the most solid examples yet published is one forming the gate, or at least spanning the entrance, of the city of Amoy. 89. Gateway at Amoy. From Fisher's China Illustrated, vol. ii. p. 69. Like the; towers, they trace their origin back to India, the gateways of the Sanchi tope' (Avoodcut 5) being the finest exami)les of a juuhjo in existence ; though whether used for the same pur|)ose as that to which they are ai»i>li lllustration.> oC Indian Aiihitectinc.

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Chap. I. TOMBS. 1 :]0 •JO. Chinese Grave. From Kortime's Waiiilcriiigs in China. s[>ire, not unlike the Indian and Ceylonese examples, Init still with a ]tliysiognoniy peculiarly Chinese. The most common arrangement is that of a horseshoe-shaped platform, cut out of the side of a hill. It consequently has a high back, in which is the entrance to the tomb, and slopes off to nothing at the entrance to the horseshoe, where the wall generally t(^rminaies with two lions or dragons, en- some fantastic? ornament common to Chinese architecture. ^Vhen the tomb is situated, as is generally the case, on a hill-side, this arrangement is not only 91. Chinese Tonilj. brum Fortune's Wanderings in Cliina. a[)propriate, but elegant. When the same thing is imitated on a plaui, it is singular, misplaced, and unintelligible. Many of the tombs are built of granite, finely pt)lished, and carved with a profusion of labour that makes us regret that the i)eo})le who can do such things slR)uld have so great a predilection for ephemeral wooden structures, when capable of employing the most durable materials with such facility. When the rock is suitable foi' the pmiKi.sc. whii-h. luiwevei". seems

140 CH 1 N ESE A 1 ; CI 1 1 T i:c'r r I ; E. UOOK III. to be rarely the case in (vhina, their tunibs are cut in the rock, as in Etruria and elsewhere ; and the tunib.s of the class jnst described seem a device for cinvertinjj; an ordinary hill-side into a substitute ft)r the more ai)j)roi)riate situatit)n. Domestic Architkctukk. It is in their domestic architectinx', if in any. that the ( 'hinese excel ; there we do not look either for monumental gi'andeur or for durability, and it is almost impossible to resist being captivated by the gaiety and brilliancy of a Chinese dwelling of the first class, and the exuberant richness and beauty of the carvings and ornaments that are heaped on every part of it. One of the most remarkable i)eculiarities of their houses is the concave form of roof which is almost universal, and which writers on the subject have generally referred to as a reminiscence of the tent of the Tai-tars, who arc sujiposed to have introduced it. They, however, who proposed this theory, forgot that the Chinese have been longer out of tents, and know less of them, than any other people now on the face of the globe. The Tartar conquest, like our Nonnan one, has long been a fusion rather than a subjection, and in China at least does not seem to have produced the .smallest visible effect on the manners or customs of the original inhabitants. Be this as it may, the form in question arose from a constructive exigence, which others would do well to imitate, and in this manner. In a country like China, where very heavy rains fall at one season of the year, tiled roofs, such as they almost universally use, reqiiire a high pitch to carry off the water ; but so bright a sunshine as at another season of the year glares down upon them, requires shade to their walls and windows. If, however, as on the left of the annexed diagi-am (woodcut 92), the slope of the roof is continued so far out as to be effective for the last pui-]iose, the up]ier windows are too much darkened, and it is impossible to see oiit of them. To remedy this defect, the Chinese carrj' out their eaves almost horizontally from the face of the walls, where a leak becomes of slight importance ; and then, to break the awkward angle caused by the meeting of these two slopes, they ease it off with a hollow cur\'e, which not only answers the double puri^ose of the roof more effectually, but ]»n)dtici's what the Chinese think — and rightly— the mi>st pleasing fonii of roof. S2. Diagram of Chinese construction.

CiiAi-. I. CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. '■+' The only jmits of hik-Ii a roof that admit of decoration by cai-A'ing are evidently either the central or angular ridges ; and here they exaggerate their favom-ite hollow curve to an extent unpleasing to a European eye — the angles being vii-tnally tnnied back, in some instances, and the ridge being also oniaiuented by upturned ornaments at its ends, to an extent we cannot reconcile with our notions ; nor indeed is it possible we should, when they arc overloaded with grotesque ornaments to the extent too often found. Another peculiarity that gives so local a character to their architectin-e is their mode of framing a roof, so unlike that used by any other people. This arises from the timber they possess most easily available for such a purpose being a small pine, found everywhere, in the south at least, which has the peculiarity of being soft and spongy in the inside ; but the outer rims of wood, just imder the bark, retain theii' hardness and strength; so that practically it is a hollow wooden cylinder ; and if the carpenter were to attempt to square it, so as to form a framing as we do, it would fall to pieces ; but merely cleaned and used whole, it is a very strong and durable building material, though one which it requires all a Chinaman's ingenuity and neatness to frame together with sufficient rigidity for the purposes of a roof. The uprights which support these roofs are generally formed of the same wood, though not unfi-equently they are granite posts — they cannot be called pillars — of the same dimensions, and streng-thened, or rather steadied, by transverse pieces of wood, the space between which and the roof is generally filled Avith open-work carving, so as to form a species of fiieze. The roof is usually constructed, as shown in diagram No. 92, by using 3 or 4 transverse pieces or tie-beams, one over the other, and supporting the ends of each beam on that below it by means of a framed piece of a different class of wood. By this method, though it may look unscientific to OTir eyes, they make up a framing that resists the strongest winds uninjiu-ed. Sometimes, as shown in the dotted lines of the same woodcut, they carry the cui-ve across the top of the rt)of ; but when this is done they are obliged to have recourse to metal roofing, or to tiles of a greater length than are usually found or easily made. As before remarked, however, it is not so much on its forms that Chinese architecture depends as on its colours — the pillars being generally painted red, the friezes and open work green ; blue marks the floors and stronger lines, and gilding is used profusely everywhere. Whether this would or would not improve a fijier or more solid stj'le of art may admit of doubt ; but it is certainly remarkably- pleasing in China, and singularly appropriate to the architecture we have been describing ; and grouped as these buildings usually are around garden courts, filled with the gaj'cst flowers, and adorned Avith rock-work and fountains more fantastic than the buildings themselves, the fancy may easily be charmed with the result, though taste forbids us to approve of the details.

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142 CHINESE ARCITTTECTURE. Hook ill. Temples. I have put off to tlio last sjieaking of the temples of tlie Chinese, because they partake far more of domestic architecture than in almost any other coiuitry. They possess no sacred forms which distin_<>;nish them at first si^-ht from i)rivate edifices, and scarcely rise in dignity beyond the mansions of the gi'cat. One of the largest temples to which Europeans have had access is that of ITonan, opposite Canton. It consists of an oblong enclosure of some extent, both sides of which are occnjned Ity the dwellings and gardens of the priests, which have nothing to distinguish them from the houses outside. In the centre, however, of the end lacing the river, is a gateway of some pretension, which leads to a hall of moderate dimensions, and tlu'ough this to a second and a third, the last beinolarger and more richly ornamented than either of the other two. This inner hall contains images of the thi'ee precious Buddhas in white marble, and also a small model of a dagobah of the same material, and with a number of offerings and images strewed about; and the painting and carving with which it is adorned make up a tolerably rich effect, but iixr more resembling and more appropriate for a hall in a mansion ' than a temple dedicated to worship. The small temple at Macao, represented in the annexed woodcTit, has more pretension to architectural beauty, though its dimensions are very inferior ; but no Chinese temple, so far as is kno\\Ti, is either larger than this of Ilonan, or possesses anyi;hing of that monumental character which we usually ^Y' ' X 93. Temple at Mucao. From a sketch by tbe Author. i> • V"^" ''"'"'^ Amlicist letiirneil from moved for the occnsion, and the room wa.s I ekin he was lodged in ihh buildinsr. Tlie u.sed as the dining-room of the Embassy, image.s ami all tho sacred ves.

C'liAP. 1. TEMPLES. 14;'. tiiiil ill all those edifices which other nations liave (ledicated to the honour of the Supreme Being. ^Vheu we come to know more of China than at present, it is possihlc^ that this opinion may to some extent be modified; but certainly no views pulilisluHl by any of those who have traversed the countiy, nothing that has been AVTitten, and no Chinese drawings, of which abundance exist, lead lis to suppose that anything except the pagodas, |):uloos, and tombs, have ever been erected by them at all worthy of notice as architectural subjects. Indeed, the two purely Chinese sects seem to be wholly Avithout temples of any sort, and theii" example seems to have influenced the r>udd]iists to such an extent as to prevent their attempting anything at all monumental ; and there seems no reason for believing that anything better than these domestic-looking vihams — half temple, half monastery— exists in any part of the country. The same remarks apply to Japan and the other large and populous islands around China. Domestic architectixre is brilliant and cheerful in them all, but ephemeral ; and none of them possess any monuments designed to last beyond the generation that ei'ected them. Their engineering works have been much extolled by some wi-iters, but they have no more claim to praise as works of science than these buildino's have as works of art-. Theii" canals, it is true, are extensive ; but with 300 millions of inhabitants this is small praise, and their construction is most unscientific. Their bridges, too, are sometimes of great length, but generally made up of a series of small arches constructed on the horizontal principle, as nine-tenths of the bridges in China are, and consequently narrow and unstable. When they do use the true arch, it is timidly, and without much knowledge of its tme principles. However admirable and ingenious therefore the (^hinese may be, and seem always to have been, in the minor arts — such as carving in wood and ivory, the manufacture of vessels of porcelain and bronze, and in all that relates to silk and cotton manufactures — it still must be admitted that they never rose above the rank of manufacturers, and that poetry of any grade is wholly luifamiliar to them ; indeed, that they seem incapalile of it in any form, either written or structural.

144 CENTRAL AMKHTOAN AIJOHITECTURE. Book III. CHAPTER II. CENTRAL AMERICA. CONTENTS. Historical Notice — Central American style — Temples — Palaces — Palenque Uxmal. CHRONOLOGY. DATES. Toltecs arrived in Anahuac a.d. 648 Abaniluned the countrj- 1051 Chichemecas arrived 1170 Acolliuans arrived, about 1200 Mexicans reached Tula 1196 DATES. Founded Mexico a.d. 1 125 Almitzotl conquered Guatemala beginning of 16th century. Spaniards arrived 1519 Were it possible to wi-ite the History of Ai'cliitecture iii Mexico with the same certainty that we can now write that of ahiio.st every other country in the workl, it would be instructive from the unity and (!ompleteness of the subject. It would be a history of an art wholly indigenous and original, uninfluenced by any foreign style, and consequently illustrating, in a close and compact space, the whole of those ])ro('esses by which mankind are enabled to elaborate an art out of the simplest elements. This is hardly the case with any of the styles of the old world, at least after we leave the Egyptian, whose origin is lost in the mists of antiquity. All other styles were influenced, more or less directly, by its forms, so that we can easily trace the influence of the Hall at Kaniac in all subsequent buildings. The Indian styles, it is true, form a gi'oup apart, but not so completely distinct as the Mexican ; and the variety of their fonns, and the want of unison in the pails, prevent their aifording com])lete illustration of an art invented and com])leted wholly without the introduction of any foreign element. Out whole knowledge of the early history of the inhabitants of Central America is derived from the annals of two tribes which, by their own account, in which there is nothing improbable, occupied ]\luxieo about the 12th century of our era. Tliese tribes, the Chichemecas and i\jstecs, came from the north, and were ]uobably of the same race with the red Indians. The coimtry which they took possession of was previously inhabited by the Toltecs, belonging to a race who had in all ]>rol)ability occu])ied the provinces of Central America from time imiiit'inorial. and who had certainly attained at the time we are speaking

CiiAi'. II. MEXICO. 14.5 of to a considerable degree of civilization, and made no mean progretss in many of the useful arts. It is recorded that tlie Toltecs abandoned the valley about the 10th century, in consecpience of their numbers being greatly reduced by a severe famine and by disease. Nothing further is related of this tribe, but there can be little doubt that some remnant of it afterwards mixed with the inv.iders, and impai'tcd to them many arts then unknown to them, and of which their more northern brethren still remain ignorant. Ihuler these favourable circumstances of climate and aggregation, the conquerors of Mexico reached a degree of civilization which the red men never attained in their native plains. The valh>v of Mexico, of which alone we have any lecord, is a province about twice the size of Lancashire, and one-third of it is covered with water. In process of time it became siibject to three petty kings who carried on perpetual wars one with another. It was not until immediately befoie the conquest of the coimtry by the Spaniards that these three kings, tired of their ruinous wars, joined their forces together, and, thus combined, proved more than a match fin- unj of the surrounding states. Thc}^ spread their arms and influence to the Mexican Gulf, penetrated to the shores of the Pacific, and on one occasion are even said to have crossed the Isthmus of Tetlmantepec. and reached the confines of Guatemala. These last expeditions seem to have been undertaken merely to obtain prisoners for their horrid rites ol" human sacrifice, of which they were becoming passionately fond ; and they made no settlement in these countries sufficient to influence either their arts or institutions in any way. Shortly after this the conquest of the Spaniards under Cortes put an end to the kingdom and power of the Astecs for ever. All this, however, refers wholly to the Astecs in the valley of Mexico ; and all the affinities that have been traced between them and their northern neighboui's apply to them, and them only. The principal remains of architecture in Cential America are not found in Mexico Proper, but in distiicts in which the Astecs never obtained a peiTuanent footing, in Yucatan, Chiapas, and Guatemala. They are evidently works of an earlier and far more highly civilised race than that of the invaders — in short, of precisely such a I'ace as the Toltecs are recorded to have been. Thus we have a striking concurrence of evidence — that of the Mexican annals, and of the ruins themselves — provuigthat, previous to the arrival of the Red Indians, these countries wei'c inhabited by a people possessing a considerable degree of civilisation. • Were it not from what we learn from the description of the Spaniards and earlier travellers, we should now be utterly ignorant of the arts of the Mexicans^thcmselves, all that they built having perished from the lapse of time, or having been destroyed by the savage bigotry of the invaders. Though these descriptions are often inflated and seldom intelligible, they suffice to prove that the Mexicans had learnt from their ]iredccessors the art of building, and erected monuments capable of exciting the amazement of those who were fomiliar

146 CENTRAL AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. Book ITT. with the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville, and knew well the palaces and monasteries of ancient Spain. ^Vo must not ascribe even the great pyramid of Cholnla or the temple of Tlascala to the Mexicans. These cities, though so near to tlio Mexican capital, were inliabited by a people of a dift'ercnt race, and wlio practised their own arts. Beyond the Mexican boundaries there exists a comitry full of niins of the most interesting character, and in a state of singularly pcifeet prcsci-vation, which, when properly explored, will do more to elucidate the history and to illustrate the ai-is of this mysterious people than anything that has yet come to light ; but much i-emains to be done before any satisfactory result can be obtained from the materials so unexpectedly afforded us. The country has been %'isited by verj^ few travellers at all capable of judging of what they saw. The explorations undertaken by Mr. Stephens,' and the publication of the beautiful drawings of his companion, Mr. Catherwood, tirst conveyed a just idea of the extent and character of these monuments ; neither, however, of these gentlemen were familiar with the i-ules of architectural criticism, nor capable, consequently, of })roperly airanging the materials they were collecting with such zeal and talent ; and it still remains for some one who has the knowledge and the energy requisite for such a task to complete the work they have so nobly begun, and to read for us the history of Central America, and the long-forgotten Toltecs, as wiitten by them in their monuments. No one could be long among these buildings, provided he was familiar with the styles of other parts of the world, with(Uit perceiving a sequence among them, and, when once this is done, the problem is half solved. We may never be able to ascertain at what exact date the earliest building was erected, nor when the last was completed : but we may be able to trace the steps by which the stylo arose, to judge how far it was capable of further development, and also, perhaps, to leam the origin and history of the people to whom it belonged. These last are the forms of the problem that have been hitherto most carefully and zealously investigated, though with singularly little success. Because this people built })yramids and engraved hieroglyphics, it is conjectiired that they came from Egypt. Their temples are supjioscd to be copies of the temple of Belus at Babylon. Lord Kingsborough's great work was undertaken to prove that the temple of Palenque was built on the model of Solomon's, and, consequently, that the peo])le were Jews. Certain astronomical similarities have been assumed as identifying them with the Moguls, and so on ad infinitum. But there is not one of these supposed links of evidence which can be relied iipon when we consider what very natural shapes to bg adopted by a rude peo])le are those of the rectangular pyramid of stone or brick and the conical mound of earth. The same may be said of picture-writing as a mode • Previous to Mr. Stepliens's book the Lord Kingsborough's work, and some others ruins only of Palenque were known throui^h had been imperfectly sketched.

Chap. 11. CENTRAL AMERICAN ARCIIITECTURK. 147 of expressing tlie thoughts. Tlioro may no doubt be certain affinities with the old world. Influences may have come by Behring's Straits, or across the ocean. The only connection that can be traced with any certainty is Avith the rolynesian islanders. The very variety of the theories just mentioned almost proves that none can be made out at all satisfoctorily. On the whole we may safely exclude all such considerations, and treat of the architecture of Central America as complete in itself, and unconnected with any other kno-wii style. Central American Architecture. Owing to our imperfect knowledge of the subject, it is not easy to defino the various classes of buildings into which the exami)]es wo possess should be divided. As in almost all countries, however, the principal are the Teocallis or houses of God. These are always pyramids, sqiiare in plan, and generally formed into two, three, or more stories or terraces, with a platform on the top, on which the temple, properly so called, always stands. Next to these are the palaces, or the houses of kings, which are extremely similar to the temples, except in the number and extent of the chambers they contain, and also that, generally, the pyramids on which they stand are lower, and much longer in one direction than in the other. A third class are tvimidi or mounds of earth, with sepulchral chambers, generally above ground, the openings of which are visible outside ; their outline seems to have been merely that of a mound of earth with no buildings on the top. Besides these there are gateways apparently more intended for display than defence, city walls, wells, and various works of public utility, and great monolithic idols, which belong more to the province of architecture than to anything that can be styled imitative sculpture. As specimens of architecture, however, in reality only the two first deserve notice in a work like the present. Of the first class, by far the largest and most celebrated is the pyramid of Cholula, near Mexico, said to have been erected long before the arrival of the Astecs. It is now a mere mound of ill-built bricks and rubbish. In plan it measures 1440 ft. each way, and the height of its 4 terraces is 177 ft. Its area, therefore, was nearly four times that of the largest of the Egyptian pyramids, though its height is not much more than one-third. W hen we come to consider the material and skill required for the erection of the two, no comparison can be made between this rude mound of the Americans and the imperishable structures of the Egyptian kings. On the large platf jrm on its summit now stands a church dedicated to the Virgin, and no remains of ancient aj'chitectural ornament exist, either in or about the place, by which its style or afiinities can be guessed. The same remarks apply to the temples of Tezcuco and Teotihuacan, and to all the buildings in the Mexican Valley. In Yucatan the case is widely difterent. The pyramids there are L 2

148 (IvN TKAL AMERICAN AKCHITECTUKE. Book III. not generally iu terraces, but rise, at an angle of about 45°, to the level of the platfonn on which the temple stands ; and a magiiificent uiibiok.-n flii;ht of stci)s leads lixiiu the base of the buildini!; to the suiiiiiiit. Almost all these retain more or less of the remains of arehiteetural magnifieence that once adorned their summits. The annexed woodcut (No. 94), representing the elevation of a temple supported by 94. Elevation ol Teoculli al I'aliiiciue. Scalo 00 H. lo an incli. a pyramid at Palenque, with the plan of the temple C woodcut No. 95), will give a good general idea of their fonn. The pyramid on which it stands is about 280 ft. square, and 60 ft. in height : on the top of this stands the temple, 7(5 ft. wide in fi'ont, and 25 ft. deep, ornamented in stucco with bassi-rilievi of better execution than is usually found in these parts, and with large hieroglyphical fciblets, Avlntse decipheiTuent, were it possible, would probably reveal to us much of the history of these buildings. The roof is formed by approaching courses oi stone meeting at the sinnmit, and following the same outline extemially, with curious projections on the outside, like dormer windows, but meant aj>parently either for ornament or to support small idols, or for some similar purjiose. The other temples found in Yucatan diflFer but little from this one, excci)t in size, and, architecturally speaking, are less interesting than the palaces — the splendour ot the temple consisting in the size of its pyramid, to which the su])erstructure is entirely subordinate : in the palace, on the other hand, the pyramid is entirely subordinate to the building it sujiports, forming mei'ely an a]ipr(i])iiate and convenient ])cdes1al. just sufficient to give it a jiroper degree of architectural eifect. In speaking of the palaces it would be most important, and add vei-y much to the interest of the descripticm, if some classification could be made as to their relative affe. The absence of all traces of history makes this extremely difficult, and the only mode that now Plan of Temple. Scale 50 ft to an inch.

Chap. II. JUIII.DlNli AT CHUNJUJU. I4, ,. \ ■,^\Vi — a stone basement with square doorways, but vt^ Li^MMJ&^ t-Tf-X 96. Klevation of Building at Chunjuju. From a drawing by F. Catherwood. without w^indows, surmounted by a superstructure evidently a direct copy of woodwork, and forming part of the construction of the roof. In most cases in Yucatan the superstructure is elaborately carved with masks, scrolls, and carvings, similar to those seen on the prows of the war-boats, or in the Mo]-ai.s or biuying-phiees of the Polynesian islanders. Sometimes pillars are used, and the wooden construction is carried even lower down, though inixed in that case with parts of essentially lithic f(^)rms. Barring the monstrotsit}' of the carvings, there is often, as in the palace at Zayi (woodcut Ko. 97), a degree of elegance in the design by no means to be despised, more especially whoi, as in this instance, the building rises in a pyramidal fonn on three terraces, the one within aiid above the other, the lowest, as shoAvn in the plan (woodcut No. 98), being 205 ft. in length, by 120 ft. in width. I'liis, though far fi-om being the largest of these palaces, is one of tlie most remarkable, as its terraces, instead of being mere flights of steps, all present architectural facades, I'ising one above the other. The upper and central tiers of buildings may possibly have been a many-celled temple, and the lower apartments appropriated to the priests, btit it is

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150 CENTRAL AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. Book III. «\' ! ;>•'•''''.■"■ .'-',■•■ .!^ 97. Klevation of part of Palace at Zayi. From a drawing by F. Catherwood. more probable tliat they were all palaces, the residences of temporal chiefs, inasnnich as at Uxmal a pyramidal temple is attached to the building called the Casa del Gnbemador, which is extremely similar to this, though on a still larger and more oniate scale. There are other instances also of the palace and temple standing together. C tmB&uis&miimi'JkC 98. Plan of Palace at Zayi. S&ile louft. to an inili. Sometimes, instead of the buildings standing Avithin and above each other, as in the last example, they are arranged around a courtyard, as in that called the Casa de his ^Monjas at Uxmal (woodcut No. 99), one of the most remarkable buildings in Central America, for its size, as well a« from the elaborateness of its decorations. It is laised on three low teiTaces, aggi-cgating 20 ft. in height. The one to the south, 271* ft. long, is pierced by a tiiangular-headed gateway, 10 ft. 8 in. wide, lea

Chap, RUINS OF UXMAL AND MITLAX. 151 99. Casa de las Moiyas, Uxnial. Scale 100 ft. to an inch. Ill tlic same city of Uxinal is another building, called the Casa del Gnhcniador, somewhat similar to the principal of the three edifices composing the Casa de las Monjas, but larger, and even more elaborate in its decorations. It stands alone, however, with only a temple attached nnsymmetrically to one angle of it. Besides these, the works of Messrs. Stephens and Catherwood describe and represent the remains of at least a dozen other cities scarcely less splendid and wonderful than Uxmal itself. The ruins of Palenquc have long been known in this country from the splendid work of Lord Kingsborough, and those at Mitlan from Humboldt, and afterwards more fully from Lord Kingsborough's work. The latter are remarkable for a hall, whose roof was supported by pillars of porphyry, at one time supposed to be the only pillars to be found in that coxmtry. But, as already sho"\\ni at Zayi and elsewhere, they are frequently used. \Vith regard to constiiiction, as above remarked, the style may be generally characterized as one remove from the original wooden construction of early times. Xo wooden buildings, or even Avooden roofs, now remain, nor could any be expected to have resisted the effects of the climate ; but many of the lintels of the doorways weie formed by wooden beams, and some of these still remain, though most of them have perished, bringing dow^l vnih. them large portions of the walls which were supported by them. In other instances, and generally speaking in those that seem most modern, the upper parts of the doorways, as well as the roofs of the chambers, are fonned by bringing the

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152 OENTI^AL AMERICAN ARlJHITECTUllE. Book 111. courses nearer tugetlier till they meet in the centre, thus funning a horizontal arch, as it is called, preliscly as the Etioiscans aiul all the earlier tribes of Pelasgic race I lid in Europe at the dawn of its civilisatidu. and as is done in India to this day. This furm is ^- : i ' well sliown ia the annexed wood.; ,. / cut (100), representing a chamber . in the Casa de las jMonjas at Uxmal. 13 ft. wide. The upjjerpart «- . .—r (if the doorway on the I ijiht hand ■^^^ v**xEli^'' ^^^ fallen in, from its wooden ifl»i^ .f -^ "P^fl lintel having decayed. A still more remarkable instance of the construction em]»loyed by the natives is shown in the woodcut (No. 101), representing a room in a temple atChichcn Itza in Yucatan. The room is 19 ft. 8 in. by 12 ft. 9 in. ; in the centre of it stand two pillars of stone, supporting beams of sapote-w(jod, Avhich also fonn the lintels of the door, and over these is the stone vaulting of the usual construction : the whole apparently still perfect and entii-e, though time-wom, and bearing the marks of great age on its face. 1(1(1. Interior of a Cbamlier, Uxniiil. by F. Catierwood. From a drawing lui. .\|i.irtni»nl at Chichen. From a drawing l)j- F. Cathrrwood.

CuAi'. II. CONSTRUCTION. l.VS Wluii the roof was constructed entirely of wood, it |)ic)l)iil)ly ])intuok very much of the same form, the liorizoutul beam bcinjj;' supported by two struts meeting at the centre, and framed up at the sides, wliich woukl at once account for the appearances sho\vn in tlie woodcuts Nos. 100 and 101. It is also pi-obable that both light and air were introduced above the walls, between the interstices of the wood- work ; which is X' j_i n 1 T_ j.1. i. i* 'U'J. iiiuirruiji ul .Mexican coiiTurther connrmed by the strange erection on stiuction. the top of the Casa at Palencpxe (woodcut No. !t4), Avhere the openings look very like the copy of a ventilator of some sort. It is of course impossible to ascribe any very remote antiquity to buildings containing so much w^ood in their construction, and erected in a climate so fatal to the durability of any class of buildings whatever. Indeed it is probable that many were erected immediately before the conquest of the country by the Spaniards ; and it is possible, though not probable, that the age of some may extend as high as the Christian era. So far as we may venture to guess at their relative dates, I should be induced to assume the buildings at I'alenque as the most modern, and those of Zayi as among the most ancient of the sei'ies ; but it would require far more knowledge than can be obtained from such books as have been published to speak with anything like certainty on this point. A far more tempting field of speculation, and one that every author who has treated of the subject has indulged in more or less, is to trace the similarities that exist between this style and that of Egypt, of Pelasgia or Assyria, of China, Mongolia, itc. ; and certainly there are stiiking similarities tt) many of these : the essential ditterences are, however, on the othei' hand, so remarkable, that, though it is impossible to den}'^ the coincidences, it is far safer, for the present at least, to ascribe them to the common instincts implanted by Nature in all the varieties of the human race, which lead all mankind, in certain climates and at a certain stage of civilization, to do the same thing in the same way, or nearly so, even without any teaching, or previous commtmication with those who have done so before.

154 TEllUVIAN AUCHITECTURE. Book III. CllAl'TEIi 111. P E E U. CONTENTS. Historical Notice — Titicaca — Tombs — Walls of Cuzco. CHRONOLOGY. MaucoCapac 13th century. | Conquest by IMzarro a.i>. I5:i4 Peru is situated geogi'aphically so near to Mexico, and the inhabitants of both countries had reached so nearly to the same grade of civilization at the time when the Spaniards first visited thein and destroyed their native institutions, that we miglit naturally expect a veiy considerable similarity in their modes of building and styles of decoration. Nothing, however, can be further fi'om the fact : indeed it would be difficult to conceive two people, however remotely situated fi-om one another, whose styles of art differ so essentially as these two. The Mexican buildings, as we have just seen, are characterized by the most inordinate exuberance of cai"ving, derived probably, with many of the forms of their architecture, from wooden originals. Peni, on the other hand, is one of the very few countries knoMTi where timber appears to have been used in primitive times so sparingly that its traces are hardly discernible in subsetjuent constniction ; and, either from inability to devise or from having acquired no taste for such a mode of decoration, the sculptured fonns are few and insignificant. The material which the Peruvians seem to have used earliest was mud, and many walls of this substance, erected certainly before the Spanish conquest, still remain in a state of very tolerable i)resei'\'ation. The next improvement on this seems to have been a sort of nibble masonry or concrete : the last, a Cyclopean masonry, of gi'eat beauty and solidity. None of these fonns, nor any of their derivatives, are found in Mexico : the climate would not jienuit of the use of the first — hardly of the second ; and in all their buildings, even the earliest, the Mexicans seem to have known how to use stones carefully squared, and set with horizontal beds. Auijther peculiarity wliicli. Peruvian art has in common with most of those derived fi'om purely stone construction, is the sloping sides of the openings — a form invented on purjiose to diminish the necessary size of the lintel. There are two discharging arches so constructed at Uxmal, but, so far as is known, none anywhere else ; and no single opening of that class in the whole arehitectiual province of Mexico.

Chai'. III. UISTOKICAL NOTICE. 155 Tho roofs and upper parts of the larger openings, on the contrary, ahuost nniversally slope in that country. In Peru tho I'oofs are always flat, or domical, and the sides of the openings always straight lined. These and many otlier peculiarities will bo more apparent in what follows, but even as stated here they are sufficient to establish the entire difference of the two races, and to give those who have so easily assumed the Asiatic origin of the Toltecs and Astecs a second and more difficult problem to solve, in accounting for the origin of the Peruvians. Besides this remarkable distinction between the architecture of the two countries, we have the negative evidence of their history and tradition, which make no mention of any intercourse between the Peruvians and any people to the northward. This, however, is not of much weight, as there are no accounts at all which go back so far as 3 centuries before the Spanish conquest. At about that period it is fabled that a godlike man, Manco Capac, appeared with a divine consort on an island in the lake of Titicaca, journeying from whence they taught the nide and uncivilized inhabitants of the country to till the ground, to build houses and towns, and to live together in communities ; and made for them such laws and regulations as were requisite for these purposes. Like the Indian Bacchus, Manco Capac was after his death reverenced as a god, and his descendants, the Incas, were considered as of divine origin, and worshipped as children of the Sun, which was the great object of Peravian adoration. At the time of the Spanish conquest the 12th descendant of Manco Capac was on the throne, but, his fatlier having married as one of his wives a woman of the Indian race, the prestige of the purity of Inca blood was tarnished, and the country was torn by civil wars, which greatly facilitated the progress of tlie Spaniards in their contpxests under the unscrupulous Pizarro. In a country so deficient in history of any sort, and without a single buildmg whose date can be fixed with certainty, it is of course hnpossible to AVi-ite a history of its architecture ; Imt a sequence can easily be made out, which is not the case in Mexico. By this means, if we are to confine the whole history to a period of 8 centuries, it is not difficult to fix approximately the date of any building we may find ; and although it is more a question of masonry and construction than of architecture, properly so called, it is surprising what progress this nide people made in so short a time, and how the}- advanced from the rudest Cyclopean work to as peifect a class of masonry as is found in any part of the world. Both from its style and the traditions attached to it, the oldest building in tho country seems to be that called the house of Manco Capac, on an island in the lake of Titicaca. The part sho^vn in tho woodcut (No. 103) is curvilinear in form, standing on a low terrace, and sui-mounted by upper chambers, hardly desei-\'ing the name of towers. All the doorways have the sloping jambs, and the masonry is of I'ude, irregular polygonal blocks of no great size. Inside the wall are a number of small square chambers, lighted only from the doorway.

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1 50 I'EUUVIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book III. ifl.-i. Ttiiiiis of IIouso of Maiico Cipac, in Cuzco. J. B. rciitUiiRl. del lJ-:EJb-tai_L3Ll, ^ — ^-^ ^-.rOi ■■'2e^:-ji£:2.

ClIAI-. III. TOMBS. l.")7 A more advauced specimen of building, though inferior in masonry, is the 2-storied edifice called the house of the Nuns, or of the Virgins of tlic Sun, in the same place (woodcut No. 10-t). It is nearly scjuare ill i)lau, though witli low projecting wings on one side, and is divided into 12 small scpiare rooms on the ground-floor, and as many similar ro( )ms above them. Several of these chambers were surrounded by others, and tliose that had no doors externally had nothing like windows (exceitt one witli two slits in the u])])cr story) ; and they nnist have been as dark as dungeons, unless the Uj)per ones were lighted from the roof, which is by no means uuprobable. The most striking architectural features they possess are the doorways, which exactly resemble the Etruscan, both in shape and uiode of decoration. We are able in this case to rely u])on the accuracy of the representation, so that there can be no doubt of the close similarity. Another building on the island of Coata, in the sacred lake of Titicaca, is raised on five low terraces, and surrounds three sides of a courtyard, its principal decoration being a range of doorways, some of them false ones, constructed with upright jambs, but contracted at the top by projecting courses of masonry, like inverted stairs, in this instance, however, only imitative, as the building is of rubble. The masonry of the principal tomb represented in the woodcut (No. 105) may be taken as a fair specimen of the middle style of 105. I'eruvian roiiiis. masonry ; less rude than that oi the house of JManco Capac, but less perfect than that of many subsequent examples. It is square in plan — a rare form for a tomb in any part of the world — and flat-roofed. Tlic se]mlclii'al chamber occupies the base, and is covered by a floor, above which is the only ojiening. The otlier tomb in the background is likewise s(piare. but dift'ers from tlic first in lieiiig of better laasonry, and

158 rEIlUVIAN AUCMITECTUIIE. Book III. having; hoen originally covered, apparently, with a dome-shaped roof cither of clay or stucco. Some of these tombs are circular, though the squares form s(vms more common, in those at least which have been nt)ticed by l^urupeans. A specimen of the perfected masonry' of the Peinivians is represented _„^_______________ "1 tlie woodcut No. 106, :-UJ-Ug'. 0!"'T .y^'mm of a portion of one of the Caravanserais, or Tamf>os, erected by the last Incas jilong the great road they made from their oldest capital, Cuzco, to Sinca. The road was itself perhaps the most extraordinary work of their race, being built of large blocks of hard stone, fitted together with the greatest nicety, and so well constnicted as to remain entire to the present day in remote parts where uninjured by the hand of man. As will be observed, the masonry here is in regular courses, and beautifully executed, the joints being perfectly fitted, and so close as hardly to be visible, except that the stones are slightly convex on their faces, something after the manner of our rustications. Intermediate between the two extremes just mentioned are the walls of Cuzco, the ancient capital of the kingdom, foiming altogether the 106. Elevation of Wall of Tambos. From Humboldt's Atlas Pittoresque. mi. Sketch I'lan of Walls of Cuzco. No scale. most remarkable specimen now existing of the masonr)' of the ancient Teruvians. They are comjiosed of immense blocks of limestone, of polygonal foiTQ, but beautifully fitted together: some of the stones ai'e 8 and 10 ft. in length, by at least half as much in width and dei)th, and weigh from 15 to 20 tons; these are piled one over the other in 3 successive terraces, and, as may be seen from the plan, ai-e an-anged with a degree of skill nowhere else to be met with in any work of fortification autcritir to the invention of gimpowder. To use a modem torm, it is a fortification en tenaille ; the re-cjitering angles are all right angles,

Chap. TTF. WALLS OF CUZCO. 150 so contrived that every part is seen, and as perfectly flanked as in tlio 1 lest European fortifications of the present day. 108. View of Walls of Cuzco. J. B. Pentland, del. It is not a little singular that this perfection shoiild have heen reached by a nide people in Southern America, while it escaped the Greeks and Konians, as well as the Mediajval engineers. The tiiie method of attaining this perfection was never discovered in Europe until it was forced on the attention of military men by the invention of gunpowder. Here it is used by a people who never had, so far as we know, an external war, but who, nevertheless, have designed the most perfectly planned fortress Ave know. Between these various specimens are many more, some less perfect than the walls of Cuzco, showing greater irregularity in the form, and a greater admixture of large and small stones, than are there found ; others, in which all the blocks are nearly of the same size, and the angles approach nearly to a right angle. Examples occur of every intermediate gradation between the house of Manco Capac (woodcut No. 103) and the Tambos (woodcut Ko. 106), precisely con-csponding with the gi-adual progress of art in Latium, or any European countiy where the Cyclopean or Pelasgic style of building has been fomid. So much is this the case, that a series of examples collected by Mr. Pentland from the Peruvian remains might be engTavcd for a description of Italy, and Dodwell's illustrations of those of Italy woxdd ser^^e equally to illustrate the buildings of South America. We do not know how long the natives of Italy were in elaborating the regular squared masonry oTit of the polygonal style, biit here we are forced to believe that the whole was done within the short space of less than thi'ee centuries, and there seems no reason for doubting that the

100 PERUVIAN AUClIlTECriltK. I'.uoK 111. greater or less regularity in tlu* masonry is a correct index to the relative age of any specimen we may finil. One element only seems to interfere m ith this regularity of succession, namely, the nature of the material. Where polygonal masonry is found, it is always and invariably in limestone. This material fractures wth regularity, and the facets are easily nibbed down and worked into those smooth, even joints which we find. It seems, in fact, to be a limestone form of masonry, ))ut even that material was afterwards forced to follow the fonns adopted for sandstone and other less tractable materials. Though not quite so cei-tain, it seems also that the polygonal method was used only by people who were ignorant of tlie use of ii"on, and were consequently forced to employ tools of copper, hardened with a ceiiain admixture of tin or zinc. We know that very excellent chisels can be, or rather could be, so made, from their having been generally employed by the 7*]gyptians, even in their greatest works ; but iron certaiidy is a better and more economical material, and with its introduction polygonal masonry seems everywhere to have disappeared. It would be a tem})ting subject for speculation to try to account for the remarkable similarity in style that exists between these Peiiivian buildings and the I'elasgic lemains of Italy. But the distance of time at which the style was practised in the two countries is sufficient jiroof that the resemblance is only ac^cidental. It was disused in Eiu-ope at least 5 or 6 centuries before Chi-ist, and did not commence in Peru till 12 centuries after Christ, so that, unless these facts can be controverted or some channel pointed out — of which no trace now exists — by which the style could have been so long preserv'ed, and at last Ciirried to the New World, the fact can only remain as the most remarkable coincidence knoAvn to exist in the wlu)le history of architecture. It must be borne in mind that in both cases the style is a mere masonic form, almost wholly without mouldings, and entiiely without sculptures : had either of these existed, the chances of stxch a coincidence woidd have been diminished a thousand fold. It affords another and even a stronger evidence than that of the jn'ramids of Mexico, to ])rove how much alike human nature is in the same stage of civilisation, however distant the country may be, and however diiferent the external circumstances of the people may appear at the first superficial glance.

Chap. I. ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 161 BOOK IV. CHAPTER 1.' ASSYRIA. COXTENTS. Historical Periods — Palaces at Nimroud — Khorsabad — Koynnjik — Babylonia. CHKONOLOGY. DATES. Foundation of Xincvch bj' Ninas . about B.C. 1341 Ashurakbal builds north-west palace at Ninivoud about 900 Devanubara builds central palace at Nimroud, &c 870 Arbaces 821 Sargon h\iilds palace at Khorsabad . . . 722 Sennacherib builds palace at Koynnjik . 702 Esarhaddon builds south-west palace at Nimroud 690 DATE.S. B.C. 600 560 525 521 486 Nebuchadnezzar builds Babylon Cyrus founds Passargad* liuildings of Cambyses at Passargada;. . Darius builds palace at Persepolis . Xerxes' halls at Persepolis and Susa . Artaxerxes Mnemon repairs buildings at Persepolis and Susa 405 to 360 Alexander burns palace at Persepolis, ruins Susa, and destroys the Persian empire 332 In following out the principles laid down in the Introduction, and adopting an arrangement of siibject partly geograpliical and partly chronological, as the most convenient and the one least likely to lead to repetition, the next great section into which onr subject divides itself is that of Assyrian architecture. I'his is easily defined, both in space and in time. Locally, it com])rises all the countries between the Valley of the Indus and the Mediterranean Sea— the AN'esteni boundaries being the Sea of Mannora, the Mediterranean, and the Ked Sea ; the Northern, the Caucasus, and the seas on either hand ; the Southern, the Indian Ocean. Through the centre of this great region flow the Euphrates and the Tigi-is. It is on the banks of these rivers that the people were first • This chapter and that next following may be regarded as, in all essential respects, an abridgment or condensation of the information contiiined in a work published by the author about two years ago, entitled, ' The Palaces of Xinovoli and Persepolis Kcstorehed has caused some of the palaces and Ixiildings to be ascribed to different kings and dynasties from those to whom they were then assigned, and proved tliem to be more modern than w.as suspected, for the oldest at least. Their order, however, remains the same, and so consequently do all tlie architectural inferences drawn from it. Those readers who nny desire further information on the subject are referred to the work alluded to. M

102 ASSYRIAN AliCIITTECTURE. Book IV. grouped together in civilised cominunities ; and from this centre the arts and the pocTdiar civilisation of the race spread outwards to all the boundaries of the province. ]Jin-ing the whole period through which our acquaintance with these countries extends, we find the three great typical races of mankind, the Tai-tar, the Semitic, and the Arian, li\Tng together in the Valhiy of the Euphrates, and inteniiinglod with oiu' another in a manner that makes it extremely dithcult to discriminate Ijotween them. It would be out of place to enter here into any discussion of the origin and affinities of the Assyrian people, the subject of whose architecture wo are now entering upon, the ]>rincii)al point being that, at the period to which all the monuments hitherto discovered belong, the architecture of Assyria was that of a Semitic people, and es})ecially interesting as exhibiting actual exam]des of that style with which Ave have long been familiar from the descri]>tions in the Bible of the buildings of Solomon. The disc(jvery of the i)alaces of Nineveh lias enabled us to understand what we never could have distinctly made out from mere verbal descriptions. The architecture of Assyria is now as familiar to us as that of Egypt, and we can realise as correctly the a})i)earance of the house of the Forest of Lebanon as we could that of CJreek tt^mples from the description of Pausanias, aided by the examination of their actual remains. The Assyrian is an entirely new chapter added to our history of architecture since the year 1843, and certainly not one of the least interesting, not only from its own intrinsic merits and the beauty of many of its fonns, but because of its historic value, being the sister style to that of Egy|it, and the parent of all the Ionic forms we afterwards find so cun-ently and so beautifully blended with the architecture of (J recce. Until the discoveries in Assyria were made, half the history of the architecture of Greece was a riddle and inexplicable mystery ; now all is cleai-, and with Egypt on the one hand, and Assyria on the other, we are enabled to trace every feature to its source. These two still stand. and probably will ever remain, as the primitive styles of the human race— essentially distinct in all their more important features, borrowing very little from each other, but each working out its own objects independentl}- of the other. It seems absolutely hopeless to look for anything anterior to the style of Egypt which can have had any influence upon it ; and, so far as we can see, nearly as idle to attempt to find in Asia anything that can have influenced the architectural stylo of the great Assyrian empire. Politically the history -ptian domination under the 18th dynasty. To the earlier period belong the migrations of Nimrod and Asshur, the building (jf Kalah, Kesen, and Nineveh in Assyria -of Eioidi, Accad, Babel in the South, and the still more famous erection of the tower of Babel. It is uncertain, however, from the Biblical account, whether the latter erection was ever allowed to

Chai>. 1. illHTDlllCAL PERIODS. 10:5 bo liiised uiiich above the fuiindation, and there certainly is no snfficient cvidenco for assuming that tlie tem])le of Bolus, described by (ho IJicoks, was either the tower of Babel itself, or even at all resoinbled it. Still less is it possible now to attempt to identify that building with the Biis Niniroud, every brick of which bears the name of Kebuchaduezzar, the son of Nobopolassar, Nor, indeed, can we feel snre that one single reuniant exists of all the buildings of this early age. Although it is nearly certain, from the monumental records of Egypt, that the Egyptians overran Assyria, and practically must have held it in subjection for nearly 5 centuries -from the 19th ttj the 1-ith n.c. — still they have left no moniuuents in the subject land; nothing, indeed, by which we can now trace the extent of their domination ; and none appear to have been raised by the natives while under their rule of sufficient importance to last to a later period. The architectural history commences therefore with the period markotl by the Gi'ooks as that of the rise of Ninus and his successors — about the middle of the 14th century B.C. — coinciding with the decline of the power of the Egyptians, and the exode of the Jews from that coimtry. This second or great Assyrian period divides itself again into two epochs, the first extending from Ninus (1341) to the revolt of Arbaces (821), a period of 520 years. To this age belong the North-west palace of Nimroud, the Central palace, the rock-cut sculptures at Bavian, and generally all the older monuments of the Assyrian period. The second epoch extends over only 221 years, from Aibacos to the destruction of Nineveh, about the year 600, and, so far as architecture is concerned, is by far the most brilliant. To it belong the palace at Khorsabad, built by Sargon (Shalmaneser ?) about 722 B.C., that of Koyiuijik by Sennacherib (703), the South-west palace; at Nimi'oud by Esarhaddon (690), and the North palace at Koyimjik, built apparently by a son of Esarhaddon. These are the most splendid edifices yet disc(jvered, and, now that the inscriptions have been (Iccipliored, there can be almost no doubt either as to the name of the king who built them, or to the approximate dates above given for their erection. On the destniction of Nineveh Babylon rose from its ruins with renewed splendour during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar; and it is 1o him, as before remarked, that every building yet discovered about Babylon and the Birs Nimroud owes its origin; at least every brick hitherto exhumed is marked with his name. They are now all ikmiIv forndess ruins, and add little to our architectural knowledge, though much historical information i»ay hereafter bo gleaned from their iiKiro carelnl stutly. From Babylon we pass to Passargada;, which was adorned l)y C^yrns and Cambyses between the years 560 and 523, and thence to Iho far more magnificent capital of Darius and Xerxes, who have left on the platform of Persept)lis remains of architectural magnificence unrivalled in the country, and which may be considered as the cidminating fonn of the earlier architecture of the Assyrians and Babylonians. M 2

ItJ-l ASSYIIIAX AllCIII'n'Xrri'IlE. IJook IV. At Snsa, Artaxcrxes Mncmcm erected or restored a great hall, veiy similar to that at Persepolis ; and, as far as Eeba tana and Telieraii, remains aie found of this great Persian style, wliieh closes the fiist series of the architectural monuments of Assyria. Contemporary witli the Assyrian period are the buildings of Solomon at Jerusalem, and contemporary with the Persian arose that peculiar style of imitating -vvoodcn erections in stone which prevailed all over Lycia and the soutlieni provinces of Asia Minor. To the same ago also belong the rock-cut sculptures of Doganlu, and those of Pterium : and no doubt many curious fragments of architectural antiquity still remain to bo examined in the recesses of tho almost unexplored countries of Asia Minor. These, however, are the ]>rincipal of those which are found during the ten centuries that elapsed between Ninus and Alexander the Great. With the Macedonian conquest, all originality in art ceased for nearly five centuries in the valley of the Kui)lirates. The Greeks, it is true, built nobly in their own Ionian provinces, but it was in theiiown style. Syria was adorned with the still extant ruins of Baalbec and Palmyra, and almost every city of Asia ]\Iinor bears traces of Roman magnificence, but all in the Koman style. Indeed, with tho one exception of the ruins of Al FTadhr, not one single edifice is kno-\\ai which was erected between the time of Alexander (b.c. 323) and that of the first Sassanian Ardeshir (a.d. 223), which has any claim to be called native, either in style or arrangement, and even this can hardly claim to rank higher than bastard Koman. At Diarbekir, it is said, thei-e arc some other remains of the same age, but they have not yet been delineated. During tho Sassanian period (a.d. 223 to 632) a slight revival took place in the native style of architecture. It was neither, it must be confessed, very original nor very beautiful, but still it is interesting as a traiisitional style, contributing many features found in the Saracenic, and still more in the Christian styles of Armenia and the neighboui-ing countries. So that, although it may not itself be worthy of much attention, still, as the last of the native styles of the great architectural province, and as the first of tlie modem styles that took shajjo and consistency in these Eastern provinces in the middle ages, it should not be passed over without much more attention than has hitherto been bestowed u]ion it. It, however, belongs more properly to a subsequent c-hapter, and will be more aii]u-opriatcly treated, as well as more easily understood, after reviewing the architecture of the Eomans, many features of which are foimd in this Eastern style. The remarkable absence of sacred 6r monumental buildings at Nnieveh, or in the other Assyrian ]»alaces, has already been alluded to. The pyramid at NiTuroud, at one time supposed to be a tomb, resembles HO closely the description by Greek writers of tho temple of Uelus at Babylon, and is so like what we now know of Babylonian temples, that It may almost certainly be classed among them. Setting, therefore, this structure aside, there arc no sepulchres, no representation of funeral ntes, nothing to show that the AssjTians cared for their dead.

riiAi-. [. NIMROUR 165 or attached any importanco to tlie preservation of their bodies after death. Ill one comer of the palace at Khorsaliad is found a hnikling of black stone, raised on a terrace by itself, and, though much ruined, still showing, with sufficient distinctness, that it was exclusively devoted to leligious purposes, and a seven-storied pyramidal temple has lately been discovered there. Nothing of the sort has been found at Koynnjik, and, with the excei)tion of the great pyramid at the north-west angle, which is almost certainly a religious edifice, Nimroud is also without anything that can properly be called a temple. All the buildings, therefore, that have been discovered in Assyria are palaces, or, perhaps it might be more correct to say, palace-temples, like those in Egypt, regarding which it is difficult even now to t^ay whether they ought to be called palaces or temples. In Egypt, however, the latter element was certainly the predominant and overruling one. In Assyna, on the other hand, the buildings partook far more of the palatial than the sacred character, though, at the same time, many oi the apartments seem, from the nature of theii' sculptures, to liave been principally at least devoted to the purposes of worship. NiMROUD. The oldest of the buildings hitherto excavated in Assyria is the North-west palace at Nimroud, built by a Sardanapalus, about the year UUO B.C. Though not the largest, it more than makes up for this deficiency by the beauty of its sculptures, and the general elegance of its ornaments. These are not only superior to those of the followingdynasty, l)ut so different from them that it was difficult to believe that a greater intei-val had not elapsed between them, at least before the inscriptions had been sufficiently deciphered to correct the dates originally assigned. As will be seen by the annexed woodcut (No. 109), the excavated portion of the palace is nearly a square, about i33U ft. each way. The [)riiicipal entrance was on the north, at the head of a noble flight of steps, leading from the river to the level of the terrace on which the palace stood. From this, 2 entrances, adorned with winged bulls, led to a great hall, 152 ft. in length by 32 in width, at the upper end of which was situated the throne, and at the lower a smaller apartment or vestibule opened on the terrace that overlooked the river. Within the great hall was one of smaller dimensions, opening into the central ccmit of the palace, the entrance of which was so an-anged as to ensure privacy, ]n-oving that it partook of the nature of the private ai>aitnients or Ilareem of the palace. To the eastward of this was arranged a suite of apartments, 3 deep, decreasing in width as they receded from the light. To the south was a double suite, a]iparently tlie baiujuetinglialls of the palace, and to the westward a fourth suite, more ruined, however, than the rest, owing to its being situated so near the edge of the terrace. As far as can be made out the rooms on this face seem to have been arranged 3 deep : the outer opened on the terrace by

1 M ASSYIUAN ARCHITECTURE. I'.OOK IV. ^ -- .?=_i— |j COURT 109. North-WeU I'alaco at Nimroud.' three poituls, the central one of which had winged bulls, but the lateral seem to have been without these ornaments ; the whole favade being about 330 ft, in extent, north and south. All these apartments were lined with sculptured slabs, representing mostly either the regal state of the sovereign, his prowess in war, or amusements during peace, but many of them wholly devoted to religious subjects. Beyond these apartments were many others, covering at least an equal extent of ground, but, their walls having been only ])lastcred and painted, the sun-bunit liricks of which tliey were built have crumbled again to their original mud. It is evident, however, that they were inferior to those already described, both in fonn and size, and applied to inferior purjioses. The mound at Nimroud was so much extended after this palace wa« built, and so covered by subsequent buildings, that it is now impossible to ascertain either the extent or form of this, which is the only palace of the oldei- dynasty known : and it will therefore perhaps be as well to tuni at once to Khorsabad, which, being built wholly by one king, and not altered afterwards, will give a clearer idea of the |>osition and arrangements of an Assyrian }ialace than we can obtain fnjm this. ' Tliis pl.in, with all the particulars here every point. The plan is reduced to the ni.'iiliontHl, arc taken from Layard's work, usual scale of inO ft. to one inch, for ea.sy which is the only a-ithority on the subject, comparison with Kluu-saltad and the I'ci-seposo that it is not necessary to refer to him on litan and other edifices quoted.

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CJllAl', KllORSABAD. 10 Khohsahad. The city ul' Khuisabad was situated about 15 miles iVuin Isiiievcli, ill a northern direction, and was nearly square in plan, measuring about an English mile each way. Nearly in the centre of the northwestern wall was a gap, in which was situated the mound on which the palace stood. It seems to have been a peculiarity common to all '#^q^sw^l fill. ; 111 , A /.■ ^a ■'■mm^'. ,iSV.-i-i'-.;Si»,»i . ^: W * 4. L 110. riaii ol Palace at KborsabaiJ No scale.

168 ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book ]V. Assyrian palaces to be so situated. Their ImilJers wisely objected to beiug surrounded on all sides by houses and walls, and at the saiue time sought the protection of a walled enclosure to cover the gateways and entrances to their palaces. vVt Koyunjik and Niniroud the outer face of the ])alaee was covered and protected by the river 'rii;ris, and here the small brook Kausser Hows past the fort, and, thouritish Museum were taken. Passing these poi-tals a flight of steps seems to have led uji to the great outer court, marked a on the plan, on the south side of which was a magnificent set of jiortals leading into what was proba1)ly the hareem court (b) or private apartments of the jialace. The public entrance ajjpears to have been through a narrow arched passage between the two courts a and c, which led to the principal court of the palace (c). On two sides this was open to the eountiy ; the third was piiirced Avith the entrance just described; the fourth was adorned with a si)lendid triple entrance leading to the principal suite of apartments of the palace. These consist of 4 great rooms, tkree placed side by side, the outer ones 110 ft. in length, and resi)ectively 33 ft. and 29 ft. 8 in. in width, the central one being both shoiier and narrower. At right angles to them is the fourth, overlooking the country, and Avitliin these, on the other hand, are two naiTow apartments on the side of the hareem court. A line of openings leads through the three principal rooms, fronting which is situated one of the few buildings yet discovered in Assyria that can with any certainty be called a temide. It stands in a fourth court, marked D, one side of which is open to the country, the opposite side being occupied by several entrances, one of which leads direct into the hareem court (b), the others into smaller rooms, w)iose plans and uses cannot be satisfactorily made out oAving to their not being reveted with slabs. All tho.se parts marked dark on the general plan, whether external or internal, are reveted with sculptural slabs of alabaster, generally about Oft. in height, which, like those at Kimroud, either represent the wars or the i)eaceful amusements of king Hargon, commemorate his magnificence, or express his religious feelings. Above this the regular courses of the brickwork in the walls can even now lie traced, generally to the height of 3 or 4 ft. more; but

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t'HAP. I. KHOKSAIJAD. ]G!»

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170 A8SY11IAN AUCHITECTLIRE. .K IV. eM^ i o I c r e. (»« o c «

ClIAl'. 1. KllUKtSAliAD. 171 tlic size of the winded bulls in the portals, and ollicv indications, j)rove that they must ha^e been raised to a h(;i

172 ASSYRIAN AKCHITECTURE. Book IV. direct rays of the sun coixld never penetrate into tlie balls tlieiuselves, and that rain, or even damp, could easily be excluded by means of cuii^iins or screens. On the lower teri'ace another suite of apartments has been since excavated by M. Place, who succeeded M. Botta as French Consul at Mosul. These differ in many respects from anythinp; hithei-to discovered in Asspia. Tlio walls are neither reveted Mith slabs, nor are pictures painted on the plaster : but they are ornamented by a series of alternate reedings, separated by pilastei-s Avith square sunk panels : the fonner looking like the stems of trees jammed closely together — the latter like deep coffers of squared timbers. The details of these excavations have not yet been published, but the same mode of decoration has been found at ^Vurka in Southern Babylonia, at the Birs Nimroud, and other places, and offers a new style wliich will no doiibt be further developed in future excavations. This mode of decoration at Khorsabad covers not only the walls of the rooms internally, but is repeated on the exterit)r on a larger scale. There are other peculiarities in the foiin and arrangement of these apartments, which will open a new view of Assyrian art when they are given to the public. So little remains of the temple that it is difficult to say what its original fomi ma}^ have been ; the ten-ace, however, which supported it is interesting as showing almost the only instance of a peifect Assyrian moulding or coniice, betrapng a similarity to the fonns of Egyptian architecture which we do not find anywhere else. The curve, however, is not exactly that of an Egyptian coniice, being continued beyond the vertical tangent ; but this may have arisen from the terrace being only G ft. in height, and consequently the cun'c below the line of the eye, and thus requiring a different treatment from one placed so high above it as is usually the case in Egypt. From the above description it will be obsei-ved ! ! that in every case the principal part, the great mass ~: ' of the palace, was the ten-ace on which it stood, ——^'"^'" which was raised b\' artificial means to a height of no. Section of styiobatc yo ft, and more, and, as shown in the annexed illusem e. tratlon, carefully reveted with stone. On this stood the palace, consisting princijjally of one great block of private apartments situated around an inner square court. From this central mass 2 or 3 suites of apartments projected as wings, so arranged as to be open to the air on 3 sides, and to give great vai-iety to the outline of the palace as seen from below, and gieat play of light and shade in everj' aspect under whicii the building coidd be surveyed. So far also as we can judge, the wliole arrangements were admiraV)ly adapted to the climate, and the onuiments not only elegant in themselves, but singidarly expressive and appropriate to the situations in which they are found. 114. Klcvatiou of Stylobate of Temple.

CllAI'. I. KHORSABAD. 173 M. l^lacc has recently excavated tlic huge monnd at E, and found that it contained a 7-stoned pyramidal toni])lc very similar t(j the 15irH :iG. Terrace Wall at IChnrsabad. Nimrond, which will be described further on. Neither the details nor the dimensions of the building have yet been published. Another most important discovery of M. Place is that of the gates of the city. These were apparently always constructed in pairs — one devoted to foot-passengers, the other to wheeled carriages, as shown by the marks of wheels worn into the pavement in the one case, while it is pcifecth' smooth in the other. Those appropriated to carriages had plain jambs rising peii^endicularl}^ 12 or 15 ft. These supported a semicircular arch, adorned on its face with an archivolt of great beauty, fonned of blue enamelled bricks, with a pattern of figures and stars, of a warm yellow colour, relieved upon it. The gateways for foot-passengers were nearly of the same dimensions, about 12 or 15 ft. broad, but they were ornamented by winged bulls with human heads, between which stood giants strangling lions. In this case the arch sprang directly from the backs of the bulls, and was ornamented b}^ an archivolt similar to that over the carriage entrances. Otlier arches have been found in these Assyrian excavations, but none of such extent as these, and none which show how completely the Assyrians in the time of Sargon understood not only the construc(ion of the arch, but also its use as a decorative architectural feature. There must always bo many points, even in royal residences, which would be more easily understood if we knew the domestic manners and usages prevalent among the common people of the same era and country. This knowledge we actually can supply, in a great measure, in the present case, from modem Eastern residences. Such a mode of illustration in the West would be out of the question ; but in the P]ast manners and customs, processes of manufacture, and forms of biiilding have existed unchanged from the earliest times to the present day. This immutability is the greatest chann of the East, and frequently

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174 ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book IV. 117. Interior of a Yezidi House at liiikia, in ilit- .'^iiijar. enables us to understand what in our own land would liave utterly faded away and been obliterated. In the Yezidi House, for instance, borrowed from Mr. Layard's work, we see an exact reproduction, in ever}' essential respect, of the style of buildin<: in="" the="" days="" of="" sennacherib.="" here="" wo="" have="" wooden="" pillars="" with="" liracket="" capitals="" sui="">p()i-ting a mass of timber intended to be covered with a mass of earth sufficient to prevent the rain or heat from penetrating to the dwelling. There is no reason to doubt that the houses of the hiuubler classes were exactly similar to what is here re]iresented : and this very form amplified into a ))alaee, and the walls and pillars ornamented and cal•^•ed, would exactly coiTCspond with the principal featiires of the palace of the great Assyrian king. 1'alack of Sen n ACM Kit I rt, KovrNJiK. Having said so much i>f Khorsabad, it will not be neee.s.sary to .say much alxtut the palace at Koyunjik, built by Sennacherib, the son of the Khoisabiul king. As the great metropolitan palace of Nineveh, it was of coin-se of far greater extent and far more magnificent than the sul)urban ])alace of his father. The mound itself on which it stands is about liinile in eireiiiuferenec (7800 ft.) : and, as the whole was rai.sed artificially to the height of not less than 30 ft., it is in itself a work of no mean magnitude.

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e'.iiAi'. 1. KOYUNJIK. 176 Alf

176 ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book IV. Tlie princii)al i)alaco Rtood at the south-western angle of this raonnd, and as far as tho excavation lias been cairied seems to have foniied a square of about GOO ft. each way — double the lineal dimensions of that at Nimroud. Its general arrangements were very similar to those at Khorsabad. It enclosed wathin itself two or three great internal courts, surrounded by 60 or 70 apartments, some of great extent. The principal fa(;-ado. facing the east, far sui-passed any of those of Khorsabad, botli in size and magnificence, being adorned by 10 winged bulLs of the largest dimensions, with two giants between the two principal external ones, in the manner shown in the annexed woodcut (No. 118), besides smaller sculptures — the whole extending to a length of not less than ;3oO ft. Inside tliis great portal was a hall, 180 ft. in length by 40 in width, with a recess at each end, and through it access was had t(j two court-yards, one on the right and one on the left ; and beyond these to the other and apparently the more private apartments of the palace, overlooking the countiy and the river Tigiis, which flowed to the westward of the i)alace — the principal entrance, as at Khorsabad, being from the city. It is impossible, of course, to say how much further the jialace extended, though it is probable that nearly all the apartments which were revoted with sculptures have been laid open ; but what has been excavated occupies* so small a portion of the mound that it is impossible to escape the conviction that it forms only a very small fraction of the imperial palace of Nineveh. Judging even from what has been imcovered, it is, of all the buildings of antiquity, surpassed in magnitude only by the great palace-temple at Kaniac : and, when we consider the vastness of the mound on which it is raised, and the richness of the ornaments with which it was adorned, it is by no means clear that it was not as great, or at least as expensive, a work as the great palace-temple of Thebes. The latter, however, was built with far higher motives, and designed to last through ages, while the palace at Nineveh was built only to gratify the barbaric pride of a wealthy and sensual monarch, and perished with the ephemeral dynasty to which he belonged. Palace of Esakh addon. Another Assyrian palace, of which considerable remains still exist, is that of Esarhaddon, commonly kno%\ni as the South-west palace at Xiuiroud. Like tlie others, this too has been dostroj^ed by fire, and the only part that remains sufficiently entire to be described is the entrance or southeni hall. Its general dimensions are souc io«.,. u, . inch. 1G5 ft. in length by ()2 ft. in width, and it conse119. Hall of South-West Palace, quently is tho largest hall yet found in Assyria. Tlie architects, however, do not seem fo have been quite equal to roofing so large a space even with the number of pillais with wliich they seem usually to have crowded their floors; and it is

CllAP. I. KOYUNJIK. consequently divided down the centre by a wall snitpoiting dwarf colnnins, formiiii;- a centre gallery, to wliicli access was had liy bridge galleries at both ends, a mode «)f arrangement capable of great vaiiety and pictnresipu'uess of effect, and of which I have little donbt that the builders availed themselves to the fullest extent. This led into a court-yard of consid(>rab]c dimensions, sunounded by apartments, all which are too much destroyed by fire to be intelligible. /biothei" great palace, built, as ap]iears from the inscrii)tious, by a son of Esarhaddon, has been discovered nearly in the centre of the mound at Koyunjik. Its terrace-wall has been explored for nearly 300 ft. in two directions from the angle near which the principal entrance is placed. This is on a level 20 ft. lower than the i)alace itself, which is reached by an inclined passage nearly 200 ft. in length, adorned with sculpture on both sides. The palace itself, as far as has been explored, is similar in its arrangements to those already described ; lint the sculptures with which it is adonied are more minute and delicate, and show a more perfect imitation of nature, than the earlier examples, though inferior to them in grandeur of conception and breadth of design. The architectural details also display a degree of elegance and an amount of elaborate finish not usually found in the earlier examples, as is well illustrated by the woodcut No. 120, representing one of the pavement slabs of the palace. It is of the same design, the ornaments are the same, as the earlier examples, but the finish is better, and the Pavement Sliib from the Central Palace, Koyunjik.

178 ASSYKIAX AKCIllTKCTURE. Look IV. whole design more elaborate, than in any of the more ancient examples we are acquainted witli. Besides these, there were on the mound at Nimroud a cential i)alace built by Tiglath I'ileser, and one at the south-easteni angle of the mound, built by a grandson of Esarhaddon, but both too much i-uined for any one now to be able to trace either their form or extent ; and around the great Pj'ramid, at the north-west angle, were buildings more like tcmi)les than anything else on the mound — all their sculptures apparently pointing to devotional pui-jjoses, though theii" forms are very much the same as those of the palaces, and there certainly is nothing in them to indicate that the mound at whose base they were situated was appropriated to the dead, or to funereal puiposes. Between the nttrth-west and south-west palaces also was raised a tenace higher than the rest, on which were situated some chambers whose use it is not easy to determine. Not%\athstanding this im])ossibility of making out all the details of the buildings situated on the great mounds of Nimroud and Koyunjik, these great groups of buildings must have ranked among the most splendid monuments of antiquity, surrounded as they were by stonefaced terraces, apprcjached on every side by noble flights of stairs, and surmounted by great palaces, Avith towers and temples, and otlier buildings, of which only the most indistinct traces now remain, ^\'hen all this was seen gay with colour, and crowded with all the state and splendoiir of an eastern monarch, it must have formed a scene of such dazzling magnificence that one can easily comprehend hoAv the inhabitants Lif the little cities of Greece were betrayed into such extravagant hyperbole when sj^eaking of the size and splendour of the great cities of Assyria. The worst feature of all this splendour was its ephemeral character — th(jugh perhaps it is owing to this very fact that we now know so much alx)ut it — like the reed that bends to the storm and recoA^ers its elasticity, while the oak is snapped by its violence. Had these buildings been constnicted like those of the Egyptians, their remains would probably have been applied to other puii)oses long ago ; but having been oveiwhelmed so early and forgotten, they have been pieserved to our day, and it is not difficult to see how this was done. The pillars that supjiorted the roof being of wood, probably of cedar, and the beams on imder side of the roof being of the same material, iKjthing was so easy as to set fire to them. The fall of the roofs, which were probably com})osed, as at the present da}', of 5 or 6 ft. of earth, reijuircd to keep out the heat as well as the wet, Avould alone suffice to bury the building up to the lieight of the sculptures. The gradual crumbling of the thick walls eonse(picnt on their iniprotected exposure to the atmosphere would add 'i or 4 ft. to this ; so that it is hardly too much to suppose that green grass might have been growing over the buried palaces of Nineveh before two or three years had ehipsed from tlie time of their destruction and desertion. When once this had taken place, the mounds were far too tempting ])ositions not to be speedily occupied by the villages of the natives; and a few centuries of mud-hut building would complete

Chap. I. KOYUNJIK. 17'.) the process of entombment so completely as to protect .the hidden remains perfectly for the many centuries dnriiig which they have lain buried, and to enable us now to restore their form almost as certainly as we can those of the temples of Greece or Kome, or of any of tho great nations of antiquity. It is by no means improbable that at some futuie period we may be able to restore much that is now unintelligible, from the repres(Mitations of buildings on the scnlptTires, and to complete our account of their style of architecture from illustrations drawn by the Assyrians themselves. One or two of these have already been published. Tlie annexed woodcut, for instance (No. 121), of a sculptured view of a little fishing \■/^v^yvww^^\J^.,J^/\.^^/^y\y'v^vy\A/^/'^■/^-. ttx, vi\. ravilion from the sculptures at Khorsabad. pavilion on the water's edge, exhibits in a rude manner all the parts of an Assyrian order with its entablature, and the capital oidy requires to be slightly elongated to make it similar to those found at i'ersepolis. Another curious representation (woodcut No. 122) is that of a palace of two stories, from a bas-relief at Koyunjik, showing a range of openings under the roof in both stories, divided into three parts by two Ionic columns between square piers, probaT)ly meant to represent such an arrangement as that shown in woodcut No. Ill, while the part on tho right is a correct representation of the panelled style of ornamentation recently discovered at Khorsabad and elsewhere. Further comparisons will no doubt do much to complete the subject ; and Avhen the names written over them are definitively deciphered, we may lind that we really possess contemporary representations of Jerusalem, of Samaria,

180 ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book IV of Van, and other cities familiar to us both from ancient and from modtM-n luKtnrv. \AAAV\ 122. Exterior of a Palace, from a Bas-relief at Koyunjik. The Pyramid at Nimruud yet remains tu be mentioned. It stiinds at the north-west angle of the mound, and measures 1 07 ft. each Mav : its base, 30 ft. in height, is comjiosed of beautiful stone masonry, ornamented by buttresses and offsets, above which the wall wa*! continued peiiiendicularly in brickwork. In the centre of the building, on the level of the l)ase or terrace, a long vaulted gallciy < ir tunnel was discovered, but it contained no clue to the destination of the building. The whole now rises to a height of about 120 ft. from the plain, and is composed of sun-dried bricks, with courses of kiln-burnt bricks between at certain distances near the summit, which render it probable that it originally was not a pyramid in the usual sense of the tenn, but a square tower, rising in three or four stories, each less than the lower one, as in the traditional temple of Belus at Babylon, or as the summit of the obelisk represented in the woodcut (No. 123), which most probably is a monolithic re]iroduf'tion of such a temple or tower a,s this, rather than an obelisk like those of Eg.ypt. The excavations at the Birs Nimroud, and the discovery of a similar seven-storied temple at Khorsabad, leave little doubt that this tower was also a temple, though it is not clear in how many stories, or to wIkiiu it wius dedicated.

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(Jhap. 1. liABYLONlA. 181 OtlioT obelisks have since been discovered, some of wliicli leok evi'ii more lik(> miniature models of temples than this one docs. Wt$0^ 1 23. Obelisk of Divanubara. From Layard's Nineveh. Babylonia. The knowledge which we now possess of the remains in Assyria ftiinishes an explanation why all researches at Babylon have hitherto been in vain. In the fomier country, wherever we get beyond the limits of the scidptured slabs, all is one mass of forndess mud, in which it is impossible to distinguisli what were chambers, what walls, Lii- indeed to be sure that it was a habitable building at all ; and as in Babylonia no trace has yet been found of these slabs ever having been used, it is easy to imderstand how all the excavations hitherto made have been so fruitless in results. Still the mound called Mujelibe is just such a one as those that support, the palaces on the Upper Tigris, and situated like them in a break in the city walls. The mounds known as the Kasr, and that of Amran, in like manner most pjobably supported the ])alaces which excited the wonder of the Greeks ; but as not one stone Ims Ixen found, or any harder material than the usual sun-dried bricks of the country,

182 ASSYRIAN ARCHITIXTURE. P.OOK IV. it is nut to be woiKleied at that tlu-y have so completely lost their (jriginal form as to he perfectly nnintelligihle, except from the analogy derived from those of Nineveh. More carefnl explorations and measurements may enable the topo«j;rai)her to deteraiine the sites of many buildings whose names are known only fi-om history; and much useful information may yet be thus obtained ; but I fear little of an architectural character can now be hoped for among any of the mounds of the ruined city of Babylon. Scale of yds. 500 1000 2000 3000 I I I r 121. 4000 yds. I'laii

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CllAP. I. BABYLONIA. 183 iicTilar. Tlierc probably was also a slirine or image on the third platform. In front were the steps that led to the summit. The lower story was black, the colour of Saturn, and panelled like the new Ijuilding discovered at Khorsabad ; the next orange, the colour of .lnpit«'i' ; the third red, emblematic of Mars ; the fourth yellow, belongxiTimra} ^ ^t^ssn n Miliiiliilillililiiilllilil 120. Restored Elevation of the Birs Nimroud. Scale 106 ft. to ] in. r ' D =-. — PI 1 i 126. Restored Plan of the Birs Nimroud. Scale 100 ft to i in. ing to the Sun ; the fifth and sixth green and blue respecti-vely, as dedicated to Venus and Mercury ; the upper probably white, that being the colour belonging to the Moon, whose place in the (.^haldean system would be the uppermost.

184 ASSYIUAX ARCHITECTURE. Rook IV. These jicculiarities (•(mfinii su com])letely the Greek descriptidus of the temple of Helus, and of the seven coloured walls of Eebatana, that we may feel contident of having a nearly perfect restoration of at least one of the princi])al forms of liabylonian temples. The inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar mention, besides this temple at liorsippa, several others, which he considered as more important. As all tJ-aces of these, however, are lost, it is probable that they were of a dilferent fonn, perhaps more like the temples of Egypt or Greece, but constnicted of more perishable materials. If of the same pyramidal form as this, sucdi great masses could haidly have disa])peared. Another small temple of the same fonn, but only three stories in height, has been discovered at Mugheyr, in Southeni Babylonia. It is principally interesting as confinning in every respect what has been said of the form and plan of that of Borsippa, which, though explored to a considerable extent by Colonel Kawlinson, has not Ixen so completely excavated as to render all the details absolutely certain without confinnation from other quarters. Contemporaneous with these discoveries is that of a bas-relief woodcut No. 127) of a temple rising in diminishing stages, which. 127. Representation of a Temple. From a Bas-relief from Koyiinjilc. though the upper story is destroyed, curiously illustrates this subject. 'J'hc temple itself seems to stand on an artificitU moinid. The base is panelled: a niche is shown on the Tipper jdatform ; and it has all the peculiarities which have been alluded to in those temples we have just been describing.

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(."IIAT. 1. BABYf.ONlxV. 185 'I'luisc (lotails onablo us to realise to some extent what we leani iVom tlie CJreeks of the great city of liuhyhm. It is ceitainly to he regretted that they are not more complete, for, thoiigh it is scarcely prohable that the edifices of Babylon, as rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar, wore eitlier more extensive or more beautiful than those of Kineveh, still it is the city best known from the descri])tions of the Greeks and of the sacred writings, so that we could more easily test the knowledge acquiied from the excavations. Babylon was also the capital of the em]nre contem])orary with Torsepolis and Passargadfu, and thus her ]ialaces formed the link that would enable us to connect, in a satisfactoiy manner, the edifices and architecture of Assyria with those of Persia. < Jl V ^ i '-^: i .::"*«« 3 3

186 ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Rook IV. Knowinp; as avc now do, from the inscriptions on tlio bricks, tliat none of the biiildinj^s now existing in or abont Babylon arc older than the reign of Kebnchadnczzar, it is evident that they never conld liave possessed either the historical or aesthetic vahie of the long series of bas-reliefs which adorned the palaces of the npper valley of the Tigris ; and although we may regret having recovered so little of the famons city of Babylon, we may rest assured that by far the most valuable portion of the antiquities of Assyria is that which has already been exhiuned in the Northern province. The only other city of Babylonia which has yielded any important architectural results is Wurka, situated in the marshes to the south of Babylon. The moxinds hero are of immense extent, but composed principally'' of coffins and tombs, supposed to be of the Sassanian age, the. place having for centuries been used as a burial-place for the surrounding nations, as Kerbela and I\[esjid Ali are at the present day, from some supposed sanctity attached to the sjiot. The principal building hitherto explored is a palace called by the natives Wuswus : it is a rectangle 246 ft. by 173, with one entrance, but no other opening in its external wall. Internally it seems to have consisted of one largo oblong court, at the u])pcr end of which were the state apartments, and on the left-hand side a series of small chambers, forming the private apartments of the i)alace. Extenially the whole of the walls were ornamented by reedings and ]ianc]s, like those of the newly discovered building at Khorsabad, or the base of the Birs Nimroud. Another building, called Bonarieh, was ornamented in a similar manner, biit Avitli this additional peculiarity, that the walls were covered with a mosaic formed of small cones, the bases of which were dipped in colours, and arranged in various patterns, as shoAvn in the woodcut (No. 128). The style of ornament is elegant, and was probably the same as that painted on the plaster of the walls of the other buildfngs, and Avhich has consequently perished from the lapse of time.

(;iiAi>. II. PERSIAN AUCIIITECTURE. 187 CHAPTER II. PERSIA. CONTEI^TS. IJuildings at Passargadte — General appearance of Ruins at Persepolis — Propylaea — Palace and Tomb of Darius — Halls of Xerxes — Susa — Fire Temples — Tomb of Cyrus. From the time of Nebuchadnezzar the history of this style of architecture is continued in a direct line for about two centuries and a half by the I'ersians, who succeeded to the arts, as well as to the empire, «)f the Babylonians. Their monarchs frequently resided at Babj^on, and no doubt added to its buildings; but their own first capital was Passargadfe, where Cyrus and Cambyses resided from 560 b.c. to 522. This was succeeded by Istakr, or Persepolis, which was the principal capital of Darius Hystaspes, of Xerxes, and of all the kings of the Achajmenian dynasty, though they all certainly resided occasionally at Susa, and erected edifices there equal to those of their native metropolis, if not sui-passing them in splendour. Besides these, remains of the architecture of the Acha3menida3 are found at Hamadan, and even as far nortli as Teheran : biit the principal buildings are at Persepolis and its neighbourhood, wliich was tlie favourite residence of these monarchs during the most brilliant period of the dynasty. 129. I'latfonu at Pussargad;e.i .8 ff^: l.'H). Elevation of Masonry at Passargnda:. ' The woodcuts in this chapter, except the restorations, are t^iken from FhmJin and Coste's Perse Ancienne, except where the contrary is mentioned.

188 PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book IV. In thoir ])reseiit state thu lemaiTis at Passargada^ are, i)erhapfi, more iuteri'sting to the antiquary than tu the architect, tlic palaces on the phxin being so niincil that their architectural arrangements cannot bo nndei'stood or restored. On the side of a hill overlooking the ])lain is a i)latfonn of masonrj(woodcut 129) which originally supported either a temple or fire-altar, l)ut tills hi\« now entirely disappeared, and the structure is only remarkable for the beauty of its masonry- and the largeness of the stones with which it is built. These are bevilled (woodcut 130) not only at their joints but often on their faces with the same flat sinking as is found in all the Jewish works at Jemsalem, and sometimes in Greek buildings of the best age. Thus an ornament of great beauty and elegance is formed out of what would othei-wise be merely a plain mass of masonry-. On the plain are the foiindations of several large buildings, probably palaces, temples, or basilicas, but all so completely destroyed that it is now impossible to say what their original form or destination may have been. One pillar only is now standing, a plain shaft, without capital or base, and more like an Indian J at than a column destined to support a roof. Persepolis. Turning from these scattered remains, we find on the gi-cat terraced ]>latfonn at Persepolis by ftir the most remarkable group of ancient buildings now existing in this part of Asia. It so happens that the ruins at Persepolis are an exact complement to the style described in the last chapter, suppl^-ing what was there wanting, and enabling iis to understand much that would ]irobably for ever have remained a mystery without it. At Nineveh, as we have seen, all the pillars, the roofs, and the constnictive jiarts of the building, which were of wood, have disappeared, and left notliiiig but the massive walls, wliich, falling, and being heaped the one on the other, have Imricd tliemselves and their ornaments till the present day. At I'erscpolis, on the contmrj', the brick walls, being thinner and exposed on the bare surface of the naked rock, have been washed away by the stonns and rains t)f 2000 years, leaving only the skeletons of the buildings, but which fortunately in the rocky country of Persia the architect constructed of stone. We have thus at Persepolis, if I may use the expression, all the bones of the building, but Avithout the flesh; at Nineveh, the flesh, but without the bones that gave it form and substance. At the same time there are still so man}- ])oints common lo both styles as to leave no doubt of their identity, and to enable us to complete the whole by putting together the two sets of materials. The principal discrepancy a]>pears to have been in the )tur])oses to whicli the buildings were ap])ropriated ; those at Nineveh being residencies, though it may be sacred residences, of the kings ; while those at Persejtolis partook coi-tainly more of the temple character. The latter were all separate halls of state, ajtpropriated to the great ceremonial jiageants of royalty,

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CUAl'. 11. PEHSEPOLIS. 189 \vhii'li were always, more or less, conjoined with relig'itms observances, iiuel Ihey do not s(>om to have been rosidenoes in the nsn;d acceptation of the term. The hareem, the fauiil}-, and de])cndiiuts of the king niu.sl o o u. o H E o either have resided in l)uiiding.s on the rock. Avliicli. composed t>f inferioi" materials, have been washed away, or have dwelt in the neighboming palace in ihe town of IsUtIvI'. or in some of the buildings on the pUiin which arc now in ruins.

190 PERSIAN ARCUlTI-:CTUnE. Book IV. Tlie general appearance of the ruins, as they at present stand, will be seen fnuii tlio Avoodciit (No. 131). The princi])al mass in the foreground (in the left is the I'ropyhea of Xerxes, and l)ehind that and to the right stand the pillars of the Chehil Minar, or Great Hall of Xerxes. Between these are seen in the distance the remains of the smaller halls of Darius and Xerxes. One of the most striking points in this view is the staircase that led from thu plain to the platfijrm, and also that leading from the lower level to that on which the great hall stood. Indeed, among these niins, nothing is so remarkable as these gi-eat iiights of steps. The builders nf those days were, so far as we know, the only ])eoi)le who really understood the value of this feature. Tlie Egyptians seem Avholly to have neglected it, and the Greeks to have cared little about it : but it was not so at Nineveh, where, so far as wo can understand from the indistinct traces left, the stairs must have been an impoiiant part of the design. But they were so situated that they were not buried when the buildings were ruined, and consequently have been removed. At Jei-usalem too we read that, when the Queen of Sheba saw " the ascent by which Solomon went up to the house of the Lord, there was no more spirit in her." Indeed, in all the ancient temples and palaces of this district, more attention is paid to this featuie than to almost any other ; and from the favourable situation of all these palaces on artificial terraces, the builders were enabled to do this with far more effect than any others in ancient or in modem times. The lower or great staircase at Persepolis is plain, and without any sculi)ture, but built of the most massive GyeloiJcan masonry, and of great width and very easy acclivity. That in front of the great hall is ornamented with sculpture in three tiers, representing the ])eoi3le of the land bringing presents, and the subject nations tribute, to lay at the feet of the monarch, combined wdtli niythological representations ; the whole bearing a very considerable resemblance to the sculi)tures on the walls of the Assyrian palaces, though the position is different. The arrangement of these stairs, too, is peculiar, none of them being at right angles to the buildings they approach, but all being double, a]iparently to allow processions to pass the throne, situated in the porches at their sunnnit, without interruption, and without altering the line of march. One of these flights, leading to the platform of Xerxes' palace, is shown in the woodcut (No. 132). In arrangement it is like the stairs heading to the great terrace, but very much smaller, and profusely adorned with sculptuie. The principal apartment in all the buildings situated on the platform is a central square hall, whose floor is studded with pillars placed eipiidistant the one from the other. The smallest have 4 ])il]ars, the next k;, then 36, and one has 100 pillars on its floor; but to avoid inventing new names, we may call these respectively, distyle, tetrastylc, hexastyle, and decastyle halls, from their having 2, 4, 6, or 10 i)illais on each face of the phalanx, and because that is the number of the l)illars in their porticos when they have any. The l)uildingat the head of the great stairs is a distyle hall, having

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CllAl>. 11. PEKSEPOLIS. 191 4 pillars supiiorting its roof. On each side of the first entrance stands a pair of hnman-headiHl winged bulls, so nearly identical with those found in Assyrian palaces as to leave no douht of tlieir having the same origin. At the opposite entrance are two bulls mthout wings, but drawn with the same bold, massive proportions which distinguish all the sculptured .inimals in the palaces of Assyria and Persia. The other entrances are destroyed, and the foinulatiun uf only one remaining ; but

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192 TEKSI AN AltCHlTECTlJ HP: BuuK JV. this, with the foundations of the walls, leaves no room to doubt that the annexed woodcut (No. 133) is a tnie representation of its ground-|»lan. Nor can it be doubted that this is one of those buildings so frequently mentioned in the Bible as a "gate," not the dooi- of a eity or buildings, but a gate of justice, such as that where Mordccai sat at Susa — where Abraham bt)Ught his field — where Kuth's marriage was judged of — and, indeed, where public business was generally transacted. There are two other distylc halls or gates on the platfonu : one to the westwaid of this, very much i-uined ; and one in the centre of the whole group, which seems besides to have had external porticos. There are two tetrastyle halls, one of which, erected by Darius (woodcut No. 134), is the most interesting of the smaller bnildiiigs on ■i,:iU' 111(1 II. In I imh, KIj. I'ropyl.ta. i:u. Scale of 90 n. to 1 inch. Palace of Darius. the terrace. It is the only building that faces the south, and is ap proached by a flight of steps, represented with the whole facade t)f the palace as it now stands in the woodcut (No. 135). These steps led to a fctiastylo ]torch, two ranges in de})th, which opened into the central ball witli its l(j colunnis, around which Avere arranged smaller rooms or cells, cither for the occupation of the king, if it was a palace, or of the priests, if a temple. In the western side a staircase tmd doorwa;\were added, somewhat \xnsymmetrically, by Artaxerxes. W'c a])))ear to possess, in the tomb of Darius, at Naksh-i-lvustam, a representation of this palace as it was in the days of the great king — for the arrangement, the dimensions, and all the features of this tomb, as represented in woodcut No, 136, coincide so exactly with the existing remains of the palace as to leave little or no doubt Init tbal tlie one is an e.vact copy of the other; so much so as to enalde us to KUjiply from the rock-cut example those paris wliich arc wanting in

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Chap. II. I'KKSKi'ULlS. 193 the built paLico. It appears certain that the juilace uriginally sup])()rted a raised ])1atforni, or taUir, on its roof, identical witli that represented in tho tomb, on whicli the fire-altar was placed at which the s. king used to worship, or on which he was wont to exhibit himself to his subjects on state occasions. The other tctrastyle hall is" similar to this, only phiiner and somewhat smaller. 0

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194 i'Ki{siAX AiiciirrKirruHK. H.M.K IV. fSt I sw 10 I Scale for Elevation. SO 80 I L 40 I SO 10 So 90 Scnlc for Plan. I I I I I 100 1.36. Tomb of Darius at Noksh-i-RustAin, representing tlic facade of liis palace surmounted by a Talar.

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ClI.M'. II I'EHSEroLlS. 195 ism T II ji ;; — 1 n o o 1 r^ C o 1 0 O O 1 c o o 1 C O 0 1 r o 0 o O 0 0 o o o e o 0 o 0 o o c f» o o 1

190 PEHSIAN AlICIUTECTUnE. B..nK IV. ■v^; ■iTiTri' be seen that the plan of the whole central part is identical \vith that of the hniklinji; just descvihed, as the bases of all the 72 eolunnis still exist in situ, as Avell as the jambs of the 2 piincipal duorAvays sliaded darker in the ]dan. The walls only are restored fnnn the jireceding illustration. Instead of the 2 distyle halls on each side, this had hexastyle porticos of 12 pillars each, like that in front ; the angles between which were filled up with rooms or buildings, probably such as suggested in the plan. Two orders of pillars were employed to support the roof of this s])lendid building, one, represented in woodcut No* 139, with doxible bull-capitals, like those of the porch of l)arius's palace. These are 67 ft. 4 in. in heiglit from the floor to the back of the bull's neck, or 64 ft. to the under side of the beam that lay between the bulls. The other order, with the Ionic volutes (woodcut Ko. 140), which is also that employed in the northem ])ortieo, and generally in interiors througlnmt, is nearly identical, as far as the base and shaft are concerned, except in height. The ca])ital, however, diffeis widely, and is 16fl. 6 in. in height, making an order altogether 9 ft. 7 in, less than the exteraal one, the difference being made up by brackets of wood, which supi)oi-ted the beams of the roof, internally at least, though externally the double bull capital probably surmoxuited these Ioniclike scrolls. There is no reason to doubt that these halls also had platforms or talaris like the smaller halls, which besides woidd serve to shelter any opening in the roof; though in the present instance it seems .V.*/f>.V.V.VV '"^???!Ti-r .4or»i .4 U f c ■ I iiMn 139. Pillarof Western Portito. 140. Pillarof XorthemPortko.

CllAI'. II. PERSEPOLIS. 197 very doiiLtful if any such openings or skylights existed nr were required. Tims arranged, the section of the buildings would l)c as shown in the Avoodcut (No. 141); and presuming it to be sculptured and 141. K. ,Mmi,m1 Section uf Hall of .Yer.Kes. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. painted as richly as other buildings of its age and class, which it no doubt was, it was not only one of the largest, but one of the most splendid buildings of antiquity. In plan it was a rectangle of about 300 ft. by 350, and consequently covering 105,000 square ft. ; it was thus larger than the hypostyle hall at Karnac, or any of the largest temples of Greece or Eome. It is larger, too, than any mediaeval cathedral except that of IMilan ; and although it has neither the stone roof of a cathedral, nor the massiveness of an Egyptian building, still its size and proportions, combined with lightness, and the beauty of its decorations, must have made it one of the most beautiful buildings ever erected, and both in design and proportion far surpassing those of Assyria, though possessing much of detail or ornament so similar as to be almost identical in style. There is no octastyle hall at Persepolis, and only one decastyle. In this instance the hall itself measured about 225 ft. each way, and had 100 pillars on its floor; still it was low in proportion, and devoid of lateral porticos, and consequently by no means so magnificent a building as the great hall of Xerxes. The portico in front was 2 ranges in depth, and flanked by gigantic bulls ; but as the whole height was barely 25 ft., it could not have been a remarkable or pleasing object. Indeed, the sculptures on the jambs of the doorway's are the most interesting part ttf this building, representing the king on his throne, and various mythological subjects, on a more extensive scale than those similarly situated in the other buildings of the platform : for it is probable that in the other palaces these subjects Avere painted on the internal walls, as was done in thtjse Assyrian halls which were not reveted with slabs. With an appropriateness that cannot be too much pi-aised, sculpture seems only to have been used in parts of the building exposed to atmospheric injury, but at the same time also always to have been employed there in preference to painting. Besides these there are the remains of several buildings on the plain, and within the precincts of the town of Istakr a building still

108 PERSIAN AKClllTKCTn.'K. lkH)K IV called the Hareem of Jcmshecd, which may in reality have been the residence of tlie AihaMiu'iiian kings. It certainly belongs to their age, and from the irregularity of its form, and its general proportions, looks veiy much more like a residence, properly so called, than any of the monnmental erections on the neighbonnng platform of Persepolis. Sl'sa. The explorations of Mr. Loftus at Siisa in 1 850 have laid bare the foundations of a j)alace almost identical with the C'hehil Minar at I'ersepolis. It is, however, much more completely ruined, the jilace having long been used as a quarry by the inhabitants of the neighbouring plains, so that now oidy the bases of the pillars remain in situ, and fragments of the shafts and capitals strewed everywhere about, but no walls or doorways, or other architectural members which woidd enable ns to supply anything wanting at Persepolis. The bases seem to be of the same form and style as tlmse at Persepolis, but rather more richly carved, though the bull capitals do not appear to have been so well executed. lnscri]iti()ns round the bases of the pillars iid'orm us that it was erected by Darius and Xerxes, but repaired or restored by Artaxerxes I\Inemon. who added the inscriptions. In all probability it is the identical hall in which the scenes described in the book of Esther took place. The foundations of other parts of this palace might be no doubt laid bare by further excavations; but the i-nin of the place has been so cdmijlete, that little of interest in an arehiteetural point of view can be looked for. Below these Persian ruins are probfdjly buried the remains of long-preceding d3aiasties, whieh deeper excavations WDidd lay bare, and affnrd a rich harvest in t1ic historical exjdorer. Near the town FlUK ThMI'LIvS. of Istakr, and o})posite the tombs of Naksh-iliustam. stands a small tower-like building, leju-esented in the wtxxlcut. The lower part is solid; the upper contains a small scpiare apartment, roofed by two great Hat stone slabs : access to this is olitained from a dot)rway situati'd at some distanee from the ground. Both the traditions of the place, and the knowledge we have of the forms of the Magiau religion, point to this as one of the tire tem})les of the ancient Persians, its roof is internally still black, probably with the smoke of ancient fires, and, though simple and insigjiifieant as an architectuial monument, it is interesting as the only form of a temple apart from regal state which the ancient Persians possessed. 1 12. Knabnh nt Istakr. No scale.

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ClIAl'. II. TOMBS. 199 Another, almost identical in form, is found at l'assarj;;uliV'. The crelebrutcd Kaabali at lAlccca, to which all the Moslem woi-ld now Ijow in prayer, is ])rol)al)ly a third ; and we possess an Assyrian picture of a temple very much rescmblino- this, it is found on the end of a l)lo(;k*of marble, called Lord Aherdeen's Black Stone, which is covered bv tli(> annals of a kmp; who reigned at Nineveh in the 7th century B.C. TO.MBS. Tjittle requires to he said of the tombs of the Persians : that of Darius is re]iresented in plan and elevation in woodcut No. 13G, and, as before remarked, on the rock is a copy of the fa9ade of his palace. Internally, three small cells contained the remains of the king, with those oft lie persons, probably his favourite wife or wives, for whom he had destined that honour. Close by this, at Naksh-i-Rustam, are four others, and in the rock behind Tersepolis three more tombs of the Achajmenian kings, identical with these in all essential respects, Initstill with such a diiference in workmanship and detail as would enable a careful architectnral student easily to detect a sequence, and so affix to each, . appn)ximately at least, the name of the king to whom it belong-s. Unfortunatelv, that of Darius only is inscribed ; but his position in the dynasty is so well known, that, starting from that point, it would be easy to complete the series with the others. The one exception to this rule is the structural tomb at Tassargadaj, which, from the description of the Greeks, we know certainly to be that of Cyrus. It consists of a small temple-like chamber, situated on the top of a small pyramid of stone steps, and surrounded by a peristvh^ or cloister of columns at some distance from the building i+self. Toiiili i.f Cyrus. IJeferring lo the woodcuts • Kos. ll^T) and I'Jt;. representing the temple at Pxirsijipa, and bearing in mind liow exactly this I'epresents

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200 PERSIAN ARCHlTEC'rUHE. P,ook IV. lie temple, or, as it was as frc([neiitly called l»y the Greeks, the tomhof lieliis, we have no diiliculty iu recognising the source whence this form of sepulture is derived. The building before us is in fact a reproduction, on a small scale, of the tomb of the fouTider of the Babylonian dynasty. Like it, it consists of a ])vramid of 7 stories, with a chamber or cell in the upper one. In this instance the chamber is proportionall}- magnified, and the stories become mere steps, but the form and airangements are the same, and this is in fact the only representation we have of one at least of the Babylonian modes of sepulture.

OiiAP. 111. SYRIAN AltCHlTECTUIlE. 201 CHAPTER II r. 8 Y E I A. CONTENTS. B\iil(lings of Solomon — Second Toniple at Jerusalem — Palmyra. CHllONOLOaiC.VL MEIIOUAN DA. .Soloniun builds I'omplc at Jeiusnloni n.n. 1005 Nehemiali vrbiiilils Temple 4-15 Herod the fireal repairs and rebuilds I'eniple .... IT WiiF.N we turn from Assyria to Syria, we have unfortunately nothing l>nt the memories of the past to guide us in our researches into the history of the art of that country. Tyre and tSid(jn, the great commercial cities of the ancient world, are no more, and, were it not for history, even their site would be unknown. Nowhere throughout the country have any remains yet been discovered that can witli certainty be said to be older than the Christian era ; but it by no means follows that such may not exist, for, so far as I know, no traveller has yet visited that country capable of discriminating between what is really old and what uiust be ascribed to a more modern date. Even Jenusalem herself, one of the most remarkable cities of the ancient world, is almost without one vestige of her pi'istine gi'eatness. It is true that the site of her celebrated temple is still known, and part of the terrace-wall which sup])orted it still exists ; but it is very uncertain if even this wall can lie dated earlier thun the time of Herod, who rebuilt the temple just before the birth of Cluist. This absence of material remains is, however, in some measure compensated for in the fact that we have more detailed descriptions of the buildiugs f)f Jerusalem than of those of almost any ancient citj^ known. From those in the liible, with the paraphrase of them in Josephus, Ave arc able to acquire a tolerably distinct idea of tlie buildings of Solomon, and from the descriptions of the latter tiuthoi- we can also understand the form of the temple as rebuilt by Herod. Till, however, the palaces of Assyria wei'e disinterred, and those of Persepolis examined, we had but little to guide us in our restorations, but now it requires only a little more time and patient industry to make all clear. Buildings of Solomon. No building, for instance, of antiquity so much resembles the tem}tle of Solomon as the so-called palace of Darius at Persepolis

202 SYRIAN AHCHITECTURE. Book IV. (woodcuts N(i. i;U and No. 135), only that the latter is by fiir the larger of the two, being 5

CiiAr. 111. TIIK SECOND TKMI'LH. 203 of tlie envious work of these stones was in three rows, but the fourth was pre-eminent for the bea\ity of its seulpture, for on it were represented trees and all sorts of plants. I'hese trees and plants covered the stones that were beneath th(.'ni, and their leaves were A\Toua;ht so wondeifnlly thin and subtile that they api)carcd aluKjst in motion; but the rest t)f the wall up to the roof was plastered over, and as it were wroTipjht over with various colours and pictures." ' This is so exact a picture of what we have recently discovered in Assyria as to leave no doubt of the identity of the two styles of building. The same observation applies to the other works of Solomon as described by Josephus^the I'orch of Judgment, the house of Phai'aoh's daughter, and the house where lie dwelt, which had another court Avithin the poich, which was of like work. The historian's whole account of the bancpieting-halls, pleasm'e-gardcns, &c., might serve as well to describe one of the exhumed edifices on the banks of the Tigris as anything which ever existed at .lerusalem. This analogy, when a little more study has been bestowed on the subject, will enable us almost certainly to restore the whole style by comparing the existing remains in the one place with the description of those in the other. The Second Temple. Although it is anticipating somewhat on tlie chronological oider of the book, and transgressing a rule which in other paits has been strictly adhered to, of not attempting the I'estoration of buildings from mere veibal descripticms, still the last temple of Jenisalem is so interesting, both from its history and associations, that it may well claim to be an exception. This was at all times regarded by the Jews as the Second Temple, though it appears to have undergone repairs in the time of Herod amounting to a complete rebuilding. The temple itself no doubt stood on the foundations of that of Nehemiah. It was situated at tlie southwestern angle of the enclosure now called the llaram-es-scherref, and was exactly one stadiuui or GOO Greek ft. each way. On ;} sides it was surrounded by double porticos or cloisters of 2 rows of columns, that to the east being called Solomon's, probabl}- from one which liad been built there by him. To the south stood the magiiificent lioyal porch, or Stoa Basilica, erected by Herod. This consisted of 4 rows of Corinthian columns, -KJ in each row, and conse(piently \b ft. apart from centre to centre. The (juter aisles were 30 ft. in widtli, the central 45 ft. or two and three iutci'colnmuiations respectively. The central aisle terminated in a bridge which, spanning the intennediate valley, led direct to the city. These porches, with the space immediately within them, were called the court of the Gentiles, and were separated fioiu that apitropriated exclusively to the children of Israel by a hiw railing; witliin which steps led to an u]i]>e)- ]>latforui. on wliicli stood tlie Tcmjilc, properU" so called. ' Joseplius, Ant. Jiul.. viii. v. 2.

204 SYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. r,...)K IV. liH. I'lan 1)1 lemiilt' at Jerusalem, iis rebuilt by Herod. Scale 2li(i it. to 1 in. This had four gates on the north side, and as manj'- on the sonth, three on each side leading into the inner coui-t, the two most eastern to the wtimen's court. To tlie east there were also two gates, more magnificent than the rest ; the first leading into the women's court, the second from it into the inner court : both seem to have been adoined with all the art the Jews were capable of lavishing on such objects. In Ihc inner court stood the altar, in the axis t)f the building, and beyond tliat the tcm^jle or holy house itself, somewhat larger than Solomon's, but built

CiiAi'. iir. TKMrLES. 205 14". Capital of Pillar in subteri-iinean entrance to Temple at Jerusalem. From a draw ing by F. Arundale. Below the Stoa Basilicii, and nearly in the centre of it, a vaulted passage led IVoni the outside to a flight of steps leading up to the outer court of the temple. This passage is of bold, simple architecture, and without much ornament except one pillar, represented in the annexed woodcut, which is interesting as the only architectural fragment of ancient .Jerusalem yet discovered, which seems to belong to a date even as early as the time of Herod. Externally the arch is now adorned by ornaments of the Byzantine period, and above stands the mosque El Aksali, and that of Omar, both built in the first centuiy of the Hegira. The Temple of the Sun at Palmyra is another building very similar to this. It consists of a cloistered enclosure of somewhat larger dimensions than that at Jerusalem, measuring externally 730 ft. by 715, with a small temple of an anomalous form in the centie. It wants, however, all the inner enclosures and curious substructures of the Jewish fane ; but this may have arisen from its having been rebuilt in late Eoman times, and consequently shorn of these peculiarities. It is so similar, however, that I cannot but look on it as a cognate temple to that at Jerusalem, though re-erected under another race of people. A third temple, apparently very similar to these, is that of Kangovar in Ben^ia. Only a portion now remains of the great court in which it stood, nearly of the same dimensions with those of Jerusalem and I'almyra, being 6(30 ft. by 568. In the centre are the vestiges of a small temple. At Aizaini in Asia Minor is a fourth, with a similar court : but here the temple is more important, and assumes more distinctly the forms of a regular Eoman peristylar temple of the usual form, though still small and insignificant for so considerable an enclosure. None of these are original buildings, but still, when put together and compared the one with the other, and, above all, xvhen examined by the light which discoveries farther east have enabled us to tlu-ow on the subject, they may enable us to restore this style in something like its pristine form. At present they are but the scattered fiagmcuts of an art of which it is feared no original specimens now remain, and which can only therefore be recovered by induction from similar cognate examples of other though allied styles of art.

20G ASIATIC A UCIHTECTURE. liuuK IV. C a APTER i V. ASIA MIKOK. CONTENTS. Historical notice — Tombs at Smyrna — Dogaulu — Lycian tombs. Ir is now pi-rhaps in vain to expect tliat any monuments of the most ancient times, of gieat extent or of great aicliitectnial imjturtance, remain to be discovered in Asia Minor ; still it is a storehouse from which much information may yet be gleajied, and whence we may expect the st)lnti(in of many dark historical problems, if ever they arc to be solved at all. Situated as that country is in the very centre of the old world, mu"rounded on three sides by navigable seas opening all the regions of the world to her commerce, possessing splendid harbours, a rich soil, and the finest climate of the whole earth, it must have not only been iidiabited at the earliest period of history, but must have risen to a piteh of civilization at a time preceding any wi-itten histories that we possess. ^Ve may recollect that, in the time of Psammeticus, I'hrygia contended with Egypt for the palm of antiquity, and from the monuments of the 18th dynasty we know what rich sjjoil, what beautiful vases of gold, and other tribute of a rich and luxurious people, the Pout and L'oteno and other inhabitants of Asia ]\[inor brought and laid at the feet of Thothmes and other early kings many centuries before the Christian era. At a later period (71(5 to 547 B.C.) the Lydian em])ire was one of the richest and most powerful in Asia ; imd contemporary with this, and for adong period subsequent to it, the Ionian colonies of Greece surpassed the mother-country in wealth and refinement, and almost rivalled her in literature and ari. Few cities of the ancient world siir})assed Ephesus, Sardis, or Ilalicamassus in splendour; and Troy, Tarsus, and Trebisond mark three great epochs in the history' of Asia Minor unsiu-passed in interest and political importance by the recoiled ions of any cities of the world. Excepting, however, the remains of the Greek and Roman periods — the great temples of the first, and the great theatres of the latter period — little that is architectin-al remains in this once favoured land. It happens also unfortunately that there is no great capital city — no central point — where we can look for monuments of importance. The defect in the i)hysical geography of the coimtiy is that it has no great river running thiough it — no vast central plain capable of sujiporting a population sufficiently great to oveii)ower the rest and to give unity to the whole.

CllAl'. IV. IllSTOKICAl- NO'I'ICE. 207 80 fill- ius our rcsearclK's yet reach, it Wduld seem that the dhh-st remains still loniul in Asia Minor are the lumiili of Tantalais. on the northern shore of the ji;iill' oi" Smyrna. Tliey seem as if h-ft there most opi)ortuuoly to antheutieate the tradition of tlie Etiniscans having sailed from this poit for Italy. One of these is represented in woodents No. 148 and 149. Though these tumuli arc built Avholly of stone. 148. Elevation of Tumulus at TantaUiis. From Texier's Asie Mineure. 100 ft. to 1 in. 14'.). Plan and Section of Cliamber in Tunmlus at TantiUais. MO one familiar with architectural resemblances can fail to see in them a common origin with those of Etruria. The stylobate, the slopingsides, the inner chamber, with its pointed roof, all the arrangements indeed, are the same, and the whole character of the necropolis at Tantalais would be as appropriate at Tarquinii or Ceeraj as at Smyina. The tumuli at Troy belonging to the same race are ])robably of ab(mt the same age ; they are still unopened, and so are the later ones around the Gygtean Lake. If not already rifled, no excavation that could now be undertaken promises more fruitful results than an exploration of these sepulchres of the Lydians, and more especially that of Alyattes, so minutely described by Herodotus, and so interesting from its historical and ethnographic value. Whether other tumuli exist elsewhere or not is by no means clear ; but it seems more than probable that in the earliest times the whole of this country was inhabited by a Pelasgic race, who \wre also the first known occupants of Greece, and built the so-called Treasuries of Mycenae and Orchomenus, and who sent forth the Etruscans to civilize Italy. If so, they would have left behind them no buildings but the sepidchres of their departed great ones ; and if their history is to be recovered, it must be sought for in the bowels of the earth, and not in an_)i;hing existing above ground. Next to these in point of age and style comes a curious gioup of rock-cut monuments, found in the centre of the land at Dosanlu. They are placed on the rocky side of a narrow valley, and unconnected apparently with any great city or centre of population. Geneially they are called tombs, but there are no chambers nor anything about

208 ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. UouK IV. \ vi-'^^W »o J >>!!>> J »>]>>> I ■>•>]»> loo J Vo J ■/»]■>-> 1>> y>M> >. > > if, 150. Rock-cut Frontispiece at Dogaiilii. From Tcxicr's Asic Jlineure. them to indicate a funereal pui-pose, and the inscriptions which accom])iiny them are not on the monuments themselves, nor do they refer to .such a purpose. Altogether, they are certainly among the most mystei-ious remains ai antiquity, and, beyond a certain similarity to the rock-cut tombs around I'ersepolis, it is not easy to ])oint out any monuments that afford even a remote analogy to guide us in our conjectures. They are of a style of art clearly indicating a wooden origin, and consist of a square frontispiece, either carved into certain geometric shHi)es, or prepared api)arently for painting ; at each side is a flat pilaster, and above a pediment terminating in two scrolls. Some, apparently j^he more modem, have pillars of a rude Doric order, and all indeed aie much more curious than beautiful. When more of the same class are discovered, they may help us to some historic data : all that we can now say of them is, that, judging from their inscriptions and the traditions in Herodotus, they seem to belong to some IndoGennanic race from Thessaly, or thereabouts, who have crossed the Hellespont and settled in their ncighbouihood ; and their date is possibly }us far back as 10()U, and most probably before 700 B.C. There are other rock-cut sculptures farther cast, at Pterium and elsewhere : but all these are figure sculptures, without architectural fonn t.r details, and therefore hardly coming within the limits of this work. Tlje Hilly remaining important architectural group in Asia Minor

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(.'llAl'. I\'. IIISTOKICAL XU'llCK. 209 is that (if Lycia, iiiadu knctwn in thin ccanitry since the year 1838, by the (liscovorit's of Sir Cliarlcs Felhiw.s and othci-s. hitorestiiii;- th(>n!j;h they certainly arc, tlicy are extremely (lislieartenin^' to any oile looking for earlier remains in this land,^ — inasmuch as all of them, and more especially the older ones, indicate distinctly a wooden origin — more strongly perhaps than any architectural remains in the western world. The oldest of them cannot well be carried iarther back than the Persian eoncpu'st of Cyras and llarpagTis. In other words, it seems perfectly evident that up to that period the Lycians used only wood for their buildings, and that it was only in the time of the Persians that they first learnt to substitute for their frail and perishable structures others of a more durable material. Ml — mi W\ 1 5j1 ipr ■ ■ ■ \ i1 ■ ■y151. Lycian Tomb. From IJiitish Museum. As already observed, the same process can bu traced in Egypt ill the earliest ages. In India it continued as late as the 4th or 5th centui-ies a.d. In Greece — in what was not borrowed from the Egyptians — the change took place about the same time as in Lycia, that is to say in the 0th century B.C. It is important to observe here that, wherever the process can be detected, it is in vain to look

210 ASIATIC ARCHITECTUHE. Book IV for earlier buildings. It is cmlj' in the infancy of stone architecture that men adhere to wondcn forms, and as soon as hahit gives them familiarity Avith the new material they aljandon the incongniities of the style, and we lose all trace of the original form, which never reappears at an after age. All the original huildings of I^ycia are tombs or monumental erections of some kind, and generally may be classed under two heads, those having cTirvilinear, and those having rectilinear roofs, of both which classes examples are found stnictural — or standing alone — and also specimens cut in the rock. The woodcut (No. 151) represents a ]ierfect constnicted tomb. It consists first of a double podium, which may have been in all cases, or at least generally, of stone. Above this is a rectangular chest or sarcophagTis, certainly copied fiom a wooden form ; all the mortises and framing, even to the pins that held them together, being literally rendered in the stonework. Above this is a curvilinear roof of pointed form, which also is in all its parts a copy of an original in wood. When these forms are repeated in the rock the stylobate is omitted, and only the upper part rei)resented, as shov.Ti in the annexed woodcut (No. 152). When the curvilinear roof is omitted, a flat one is substituted, nearly similar to those common in the country at the present day. consisting of beams of uusquaied timber, laid side Ijy side as close as they can be laid, and over this a mass of concrete or clay, sufficiently thick to prevent the rain from penetrating through. Some152. Rockcut Lycian Tomb. From Forbes and Spratts Lycia. timCS this is SUrmOUntcd by a low ]iediment, and sometimes the other framing stands out from the rock, so as to give the entrance of the tomb something of a porchlike form. Both these fonus are illustrated in the two wf.odeuts (Nos. 153, 154), and numerous varieties of them are shoAvn in the works of Sir Charles Fellows and others, all containing the same elements, and betraying most distinctly the wooden origin from which they were derived.

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ClIAl>. IV. LYCJAN 'POMISS. 21 1 ir>:?. Kock-cut Lycian Tomb. From Texier's Asie Miueuie. 151. Rock cut I-ycian Tomb. From Sir Charles Fellowss work. V 2

212 ASIATIC AHCHITECTURE. 1500K IV. The last form that those buildings took was in the sulistitiition of an Ionic facjado for tliese carjientry forms : this was not done ap])arently at once, for, tlioiigli the Ionic form was evidently boiTowed from the neighlionring Greek cities, it was only adopted by degrees, and even then betrayed more strongly the wooden forms from which its entablature was derived than is usually found in other or more purely Grecian exam[)les. As soon as it had fairly gained a footing, the wooden style was abandoned, and a masOniy one substituted in its stead. The whole change took ])lace in this countiy probably within a centuiy ; but this is not a fair test of the time such a process usually takes, as hero fyite„,^,M!^ it was evidently done under ■'7''7t\^''i' I'lfti'' foreign influence, and with the ITia. Ionic Lyiian Tomb. Fioin Te.\ier's Asic Mineurc. spur of the C.vamplo of a StonObuilding people. We have no knowledge of Ikjw lorig it took in Egypt to etl'ect the transformation. In India, where the form and construction of the older Buddhist temi)les resemble so singiilarly these examples in Lycia, the process can be traced tln-ough five or six centuries ; and in Persia it took perhaps nearly as long to convert the wooden architecture of the Assyrians into even the imperfect stone architecture of the AchaMuenians. Even in their best and most perfect buildings, however, much still remained to be done before the cai-pontry types were fiiirly got i"id of, and the style entitled to rank among the nia.sonic arts of the world. The remaining ancient l)uildings of Asia Minor weie all built liy the (ireoks and IJomans, each in their own stylo, so that their classification and description belong properly to the chapters treating of the architectural history of those nations, from Avhich they cannot properly be separated, although at the same time it is true that the purely Euro]tean forms of the art are considerably modified by the iniluencc of local Asiatic forms and feelings. The Ionic order, for instance, wliich an)se in the Grecian colonies on the coast, is only the native style (if Ibis countiy I)(jrici/ed, if the expression may be used. In otiier words, the local method of building had become so modified and altered by the Greeks in adapting it io the Doric, which had become the typical style with them, as to lose almost all its original Asiatic forms. Tl thus became essentially a stone aichitecture with external (•olnmns, instead of a style indulging only in wooden pillars, and those used intenially, as there is every leason to su]ipt)se was the earlier

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('iiAi>. IV. ASIATIC AUClllTECTUUK. 213 I'diiu of tlie Jut. TIk- lunif style, tlms composed of two elements, took the arran^i'ment of the temples from the Doric, and the details trom the Asiatic original. The Koman temples, on the contrary, which have been erected in this part of the world, in their columns and other details exactly follow the buildings at Eome itself; while, as in the instances above qtioted of Jernsalem, Palmyra, Kangovar, and others, the essential forms and arrangements arc all local and Asiatic, The former are C4reek temples with Asiatic details, the latter Asiatic temi)les Avith many Roman masonic forms. The Greeks in fact were colonists, the Romans only conquerors ; and hence the striking dift'crence in the style of Asiatic art executed under their res])ective influence. We shall have frequent occasion in the setpicl to lefei' to this difference.

214 EGYPTIAN AllClllTECTUUE. Book V. HOOK V, (J H APT Ell I. E G Y r T.' CONTENTS. Introductory remarks — Diinensious of the Pyramids — Pyramids of Gizeh Saccara — Architecture of the Pyramids. VVk have now traced the history of all the known styles of architecture of tlie Eastern World, from their origin to the time when they lost their local individuality in the great reacticmary movements that took place from time to time from the A\'e.st towards the East, It now remains to take up the thread of the Western styles of art at their earliest dawn in Egypt, and to trace them through the history of that great band of nations living round the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, who carried forward the ])rogress of the art, without any interruption of its continuity, from its first apjicarance on the banks of the Nile till it sunk with the fall of the Koman Empire, to make way for the era of Christian forms and Christian art. Even, however, in this limited space, perfect continuity of narrative will be impossible. To prevent confusion, and the necessity of recurring to a subject after it lias been fini.shed, it will be exi)edient first to complete the history of Egyptian art from the earliest time till its extinction in the time of the Eoman Emperors; then to go back 12 or 13 centuries to commence the early history of Pelasgic art in Greece, and trace the history of the rjrecian styles down to the time of Alexander the Great, and a thiid time to revert to a ]icriod nearly as early, or to the commencement of Etruscan art in Italy. Finally it will be necessary to trace the development of art in Kome during the period when that groat city gradually al)sorbed Greece and Egy}>t in the vast vortex of her ambition, till all these forms of art perished with the ' It will be seen that in this chapter tlie 2400 years. It lias been thought better, iu whole subject of Egyptian chronology is a work like the ])icsent, to exclude the quesoniittcd. Ii has been thought necessary to tion altogether than to atlopt a sj-steni which do this on account of the largeness of the is so far from settlwl, without the ])ossibility subject and of the great dilference of opinion of stilting the grounds on which tluit system which jirevails u]>ou it. The acUia] difference rests. Tiie question is examined in an Apbetween the best authorities for the date (for pendix to the ' Principles of Beauty in Art,' instance) of the Creat Pyramid is no less than by the Author.

CiiAi>. I. INT1{01)UCT0RY REMAIUvS. 215 early civilization of the Western World, in the downfall of Iho Koman Empire after the a^e of Constantino the Great. Without atteuii)ting here to assign accurate, or even approximate dates, we will endeavour to state v/hat is beyond all dispute, and what must be borne in mind in order to fonn any correct idea at all of the various classes of remains in this ancient land. In the accounts which have been transuiitted to us by the Egyptians themselves, their early history and chronology are divided according to the dynasties of their kings, of which they enumerate no less tlian 29. Most of these are obscure and unimportant. The great epochs wei-e the 4th dynasty, which reigned at lAlemphis, to which the pj-ramids of Gizeh are assigned ; the 12th, of which Osoi-tasen was the great monarch and Thebes the capital ; and the 18th and 19th, which followed on the expulsion of the intruders known as the Shepherd Kings. The early part of the 1 8th dynasty was rendered illustrious by the exploits of several kings bearing the name of Thothmes. After their period a second interruption took place under foreign kings who were worshippers of the sun, probably a I'emnant of the Shepherd Kings. On their expulsion the original line was restored, and during the reigns of Mauepthah and the two first kings named Ehamses or Eemeses attained the liighest pitch of splendour. The first king of the 19th dynasty, known locally as the third Ehamses, is clearly identified with the great conqueror known by the Greeks as SesoKtris. This and the previoTis dynasty are those which furnish us with the most magnificent architectural remains ; and from the conclusion of this brilliant epoch began the decline of Egyptian art and dominion. Tlie architectural history of Egypt thus divides itself into two great periods. The first is represented by tlie Pyramids, all the principal of wliich stand in the neighbourhood of Memphis, the royal city of the old kingdom of LoAver Egypt. The second period is representecl by the temples erected by the kings of the later dynasties, who reigned at Thebes in Tapper Egypt. All chronological systems, however Avidely differing in the actual dates assigned, concur in placing the pyramids of Egypt as the oldest of all architectural objects, either in existence or of which any record or description whatever is preserved. Their relative age, as well as that of the other monuments, is known beyond a doubt. Previous to the rise of the 12th or 1st great Theban dynasty we have a series of nearly 50 royal pyramids or tombs, wdth contemporary sepulchres and smaller monuments in their neighboaxrhood, which enable us to understand, and very completely to illustrate, the Avliole progress of the art of this earlier kingdom. This being tlie case, it rcall}' is not necessary to attempt to ascertain the exact period which elapsed between their erection and that of the monuments wjiich succeeded them. It is sufficient to know that they fonn the oldest group of monunients in Egypt, and, so far as we can ascertain, also the oldest in the woi'ld. We have every reason to look upon them as exam])k's of a style absolutely inde]iendent of all previous ett'orts of human art either in Egypt itself or in any contemporaiy nation.

216 ECiYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book V. Witli thcsL' evidences of extreme anti(iTiity we arc istartled t«» fiiul J0g-3ptia)i ait nearly jis peii'eet in the oldest pyramids as in any ol" the later, or as it became aftenvards, when all the refinement aaid all the science of the Greeks had Leen applied to its elaboration. Even at the earliest peiiudthe Egyptians had attained the art of transporting the heaviest blocks of granite fiom iSyene to Memjjhis, of s(|uaring them with a mathematical precision never surpassed, of polishing them to a suifacc as smooth as gla«s, and of raising them higher thtui such blocks have ever been raised in an}' buildings in the world, and setting them with a truth and precision so wondeiful, that they now lie there without liaw or settlement, after thousands of years have passed over them, and swept the more modem buildings of other nations from the face of the earth, or laid them in undefinablo and indiscriminate ruin. At that early period, too, the art of sculpture was as perfect as it ever afterwards became: the hieroglyphics are an perfectly cut, as beautifully coloured, and told their tale with the same quaint distinctness which aftenvards characterised them. It is in vain to speculate on how long it must have taken any nation to reach this degix-e of jicrfectiou, moie especially a nation so little progressive as the Egyptians were. We must content ourselves with the fact, and in our wonder at its immensity leani from it more humble notions of our own anticpiity and knowledge, and more extended views of ancient history-. Above all, we ac(]uiic a more exalted admiration for the ])eo})le who, long before the da-\\ii of civilisation among other natit)ns, had already reached so high a pitch of greatness, and achieved that jiosition which enabled them to intlucnce and instruct all subsequent ages in their science and their i)hilns(»phy. Turning, then, to the Pyi-amids — the oldest, largest, and most mysterious of all the monuments of man's art now existing — we find that all thos^e in Egypt are situated on the left bank of the Nile, just beyond tlie cultivated ground, and on the edge of the desert, and all the ])rincipal ones withiji what may fairly be called the Necropolis of Memphis. Lej)sius, it is said, has discovered and explored about 50 of these, all which appear to be royal sei)ulchres. This alone, if tnie, would sutfice to justify us in assigning a duration of 1000 years to the dynasties of the pyramid-builders, which is about the date we acquire from other sources. The three great pyramids of Gizeh are the most remarkable and the best known of all those of Egy])t. Of these the first, erected by ('heo])s, or, JUS he is noAV more correctly named, Sui)his, is the largest; but the next, by Cheidieren, his brother, is scarcely inferior in dimensicms ; the tliird, that of Mycerinus, is very much smaller, but excelled the two others in this, that it had a coating of beautiful red granite from Syenc, while the other two were reveted only with the beautiful limestone of the country. Tart of this coating still remains near the top of the second ; and Colonel Vyse was fortunate enough to discover some of the ccjping-stones of the Great Pyiamid buried in the rubbish at its base, sufticient to indicate the nature and extent of the whole, and to

CiiAi-. I. THE PYRAMIDS. Iil7 ,sli(i\v lliat it was commcncoil from ihv luttioin Jiiid carried iipwards. not at tho to]), as it has somctiiues been thoiightk'ssly asserted. The diiuensiuiis of these three, as ascertained by the copings, are as follows : — Length of Height. Area in Anple of Angle of base. square feet. side. pa-ssage. Feet. Feet. o ' 0 ' Cheops . . 764 . . 480 . . 543,691) . . 51-50 . . 26-41 Chepheren . . 707 . . 454 . . 409,849 . . 52-20 . . 25-55 Mycerinus . . 354 . . 218 . . 125,316 . . 51. 26-2 ' From this it will be seen that the area of the Great Pyramid (more than 13 acres) is more than twice the extent of that of St. Peter's of l\ome, or any other building in the world. Its height is equal to the higliest spire of any cathedral in Europe ; for, though it has been attempted to erect higher buildings, in no instance has this yet been successful. Even the third pyramid covers more ground than any G(,)thic cathedral, and the mass of materials it contains far sur^iasses that of any erection we possess in Europe. All the pyramids (with one exception) face exactly north, and have their entrance on that side — a circumstance the more remarkable, as the later builders of Thebes seem to have had no notion of orientation, but to have placed their buildings and tombs, almost as if to avoid regularity, in every conceivable direction. Instead of the entrances to the pyramids being level, they all slope downwards— generally at angles of about 26° to the horizon — a circumstance which has led to an infinity of speculation, as to whether they were not ol)servatories, and meant for the observation of the pole-star, &c. All these theories, liowever, have failed, for a variety of reasons it is needless now to recapitulate ; but among others it may be mentioned that the angles are not the same in any two pyramids, though built within a few years of one another, and in the twenty which were measured by Colonel Vyse they vary from 22° 35' to 34° 5'. The angle of the inclination of the side of the pyramid to the horizon is more constant, varying only from 51° 10' to 52° 32', and in the Gizeh pyramids the angle of the passage seems to have been intended to have been about one-half of this. Beyond this it is difficult to proceed, unless we may perhaps ol)tain an approximation to the principle by which the builders seem to have been governed by the following sim})le calculation. Divide the circle into 28 parts, which, as the Egyptians used weeks and lunar reckoning, is by no means an im]irobal)le division. Let every 28th ]«irt be represented by (t, which will thus be ec^ual to 12°. 857. Multiply this by 2, 3, 4, and 5, and we obtain thereby very nearly the 1 The measures quoted in the text are all loweil in the text, and another set corrected taken from the elaborate siu'veys made by according to his theory of what they ought :Mr. Perring for Colonel Vyse, which are by to have been, sujiposing every part to have far the most comitlete and correct which have been set out of an even miml)er of Kgyptian vet bcLMi pulilished. It is necessary, how- cubits. In most instances Iiis theory agrees ever to warn the reader that ]Mr. Terring pretty cKisely witli liis observations, liut is iiublished two sets of measurements, tliose generally more lila-ly to mislead than guide iVoni actual observation, wliicli are tliose fol- tlie reader.

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218 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book V. moan an^lo tf all the dittbront imrts of tlio jnramid.' But as no two liyiamiils tblluw the same lule, it is obvious tluit this or any other explanation must fail, if strictly apjjlied to any one, to be equally ajtplicable to the others. The most ]>lausible thef)ry seems to be, tliat the faces of the jtyjamid were intended to be practically 4 equilateral triangles, laid a

CllAl-. 1. THE PYHAMIDS. 219 stei)s. Tlioir average height is nearly 2 ft. (! in., but they diiuinish ill lieight — generally speaking, hut not unifunnly — towards the t(jp. 'I'he summit now consists of a platform 32 ft. 8 in. scpiare ; so that about 24 ft. is wanting, the present actual height being 4oG ft. It contains 2 chambers above-ground, and 1 cut in the rock at a considerable depth be'low the foundations. The passages and chambers are worthy of the mass ; all are lined with polished granite ; and the ingenuity and pains that have been taken to render them solid and secure, and to prevent their being oushcd by the superincumbent mass, raise our idea of Egyptian science higher than even the bulk of the building itself could do. Towards the exterior, where the pressure is not gi'cat, the roof is flat, though it is probable that even there the weight is throughoTit discharged by 2 stones, sloping up at a certain angle to where they meet, as at the entrance. Towards the centre of the pyramid, however, the passage becomes 28 ft. high, and assumes the form of inverted stairs, as shown in the section (fig. 1), till it contracts so much at the top that no pressure can hurt it. Nowhere, however, is this ingenuity more shown than in the royal chamber, which measures 17 ft. 1 in. by 34 ft. 3 in., and 19 ft. in height. The walls are lined and the roof is formed of splendid slabs of Syenite, but above the jf/m/^ni'//' i, roof 4 successive chambers, as ^^ " - a sho^ni in the annexed section ^ -/^ (fig. 2), have been formed, each ' "^ '^ pj_, ^ divided from the other by slabs of ; ■ "■ , granite, polished on their lower surfaces, but left rough on the upper, and above these a 5th chamber is formed of 2 sloping "L'fr h Kis;. 1. m 157 -K| Section ul King's Chamber and of I'assage in Gre;it Pyramid. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. blocks to discharge the weight of the whole. The first of these chambers has long been kno'WTi : the upper four were discovered and first entered by Colonel Vyse, and it was there that he discovered the name of the founder. This Avas not engi'aved as a record, but scribbled in red paint on the stones, apparently as a quarry -mark, or as an address to the king, and accompanied by something like directions for their position in the building, sufficient, however, to identify completely the founder and the time of the erection of the pyramid. This is the only really virgin discovery in the pyramids, as they have all been opened either in the time of the Greeks or ]-iomans, or by the Mahometans, and an unrifled tomb of this age is still a desideratum. Until such is hit upon we must remain in ignorance of the real mode of sepulture in those days, and of the pui-pose of many of the arrangements of these mysterious buildings. The porteullises which invariably close the entrances of the si'])ulchral chamber in tlu' pyramids are among tlu- most ciirious and Inge

22U EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. I!uok V. nioiis of the aiTfni<:>f these lnn'Minjj;s. Generally they eunsitst ul great eiibiciil masses ctf" gniuito, measuring 8 or lU it. each way, and consequently weighing 50 or 60 tons, and even more. These were fitted into chambers prepared during the construction of the building, but raised into the ui)per parts, and, being lowered after the body was dc})u.sited, closed the entrance so eifectually that in some instances it has been found necessary either to break them in ])ieces, or to cut a passage round them to gain admission to the chaiubers. They generally slide in grooves in the wall, to which they fit exactly, and altogether show a degree of ingenuity and forethought very remarkable, considering the early age at which they were executed. In the second pji-amid one chamber has been discovered partly above ground, partly cut in the rock. In the third the chambers are numerous, all excavated in the rock ; and from the tunnels that have been driven by explorers through the superstnictures of these two, it is very doubtful whether . anything is to be found above gr(.)uud. It is observable that the measurements of the third pyramid are as nearly as possible the exact half of those of the second. This cannot have been unintentional. The exceptional pyramid above alluded to is that of baccara, shown in the annexed plan and section (woodcut No. 153), both to the scale of 100 ft. to 1 in. It is the only pyramid that does not face exactly north and south. It is nearly of the same general dimensions with the ])yramid of C'hepheren, but its outline, the disjiosition of its chambers, and the hieroglyphics found in its interior, all seem to })oint to an imitation of the old form of mausolea by some king of a far more modern date. All the old pyramids do not follow the simple outline of those of Gizch. That at Uashoor, for instance, rises to half its height Avith a slope of 54^ to the horizon, but is finished at the angle of 45 , giving it a very exceptional appearance ; and that of Meydoon has more the api)earance of a tower, its angle being 74° 10'. Two smiUler toAvers rise from its summit, in the manner in which it is supposed Assyrian [)yramids were usually constructed. The latter, indeed, seems not to have been an unusual mode of building p>Tamids in stories or stages, each less than the other, but it is possible that this was only temjiorary or preparatory, and that it w;is intended eventually to smooth the whole down to the more orthodox fonii of a straight -sided i)yramid. The architecture of the ago of the i)yramids hjis not yet been sufliciently illustrated ; but when the great Pnissian wt)rk is finished, this reproach will be removed, as Lcpsius seems to have paid especial attention to the stnictural tombs and buildings around the pyramids, many or most of which are contemporary, or nearly so. with the oldest of them. Like all early architecture, it shows evident symjitoms of having been boiTowed from a wooden original. The lintels of the doorways are still rounded, and the walls are mere square posts, grooved and jointed togethei", and every ])art of it as unlike a stone architecture as can possil)ly be seen. Vet the pyramids themselves, and those toml)s

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ClIAf. I. THE TYUAMIDS. 221 ^ ■ — 1^|m|H 1 "^^1 vta^^^^l >--/,v.^ C^v^^^^^^ '~, From Culiiui,'! V'j-se's work. Stale 100 ft. to 1 ill.

222 EG YPTl A X A RCHITECTURE. Book V whicli are found oiitsi

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CiiAr. I. EGITTIAN AKCIIITECTURE. 22:? none, e()nso(iiiontly, so well cjilculatefl to attain the ohject for wliieli {\\o i>viainiils were evecterl. As examples of tei-hnic art, they air uiilivalled aniono; the works of men, but they rank amonj;- tlu; lowest if jii(1,l;\hI hy the aesthetic rules of arehiteetural art. 'J'lie same character belongs to the tombs and buildings avDiuiil them : they are low and solid, and possess neither beauty of form nor any arehiteetural feature at all worthy of attention or admii-atif)n, but they have lasted nearly uninjured from the remotest antiquity, and tlms have attained the object their builders had princi])ally in view when they designed them.

224 THKIUN AUCUlTEnTHK. J]o

riiAi'. 11. riLLAUs. 22:. slii]) of .loise})h " tlio Kp;yptian.s mi<: not="" cat="" in="" avith="" the="" itol="" tor="" tliat="" is="" an="" alioininatioii="" to="" eji="" and="" that="" every="" shepherd="" abomiiiatiun="" nnto="" l="" descendants="" of="" old="" egyptian="" kings="" however="" still="" existed="" tliongh="" they="" cannot="" be="" said="" have="" reigiied="" till="" lapse="" time="" bronght="" ileeay="" corniption="" into="" janks="" when="" joining="" with="" other="" petty="" native="" descent="" rose="" expelled="" races="" restored="" empire="" even="" greater="" glory="" than="" before.="" under="" their="" iiilc="" egypt="" became="" most="" powerful="" state="" ancient="" world="" attained="" a="" point="" greatness="" arms="" art="" which="" she="" never="" snipassed="" so="" far="" as="" architectnre="" concerned="" unequalled="" by="" any="" avhich="" has="" from="" this.="" on="" restoration="" monarchs="" brought="" back="" them="" st="" had="" prevailed="" before="" inteituption="" caused="" subjection="" luialtered="" all="" respects.="" two="" periods="" therefore="" must="" taken="" together="" one="" grouji.="" this="" group="" com="" best="" greatest="" it="" will="" necessary="" treat="" rather="" more="" detail="" methodically="" previous="" style.="" pillars.="" pillars="" aie="" very="" fonns.="" these="" we="" content="" here="" describe="" few="" appear="" distinct="" t="" general="" style="" art.="" simplest="" form="" plain="" square="" pier="" or="" avithout="" abacus="" used="" tombs="" about="" pyramids.="" sir="" gardner="" wilkinson="" suggests="" avas="" derived="" supports="" left="" quarries="" sustain="" superincumbent="" strata="" but="" its="" origin="" may="" earlier="" simpler="" for="" evident="" wherever="" loof="" verandah="" open="" space="" covered="" avhether="" masonry="" brick="" stone="" obvious="" simjjlest="" mechanically="" mode="" su="" beam="" beams.="" such="" piers="" avere="" probably="" bazaars="" houses="" tenq="" memphis="" ca="" avhen="" pyi-amids="" erected.="" built="" rubble="" either="" flat="" tiles="" avood="" becomes="" indispensable="" diifuse="" pressure="" beams="" equally.="" regidar="" courses="" contemporaneousl="" those="" rubble.="" none="" should="" project="" beyond="" line="" i="" no="" fact="" does="" been="" usual="" peiiod="" next="" pillar="" took="" octasron="" cutting="" off="" angles="" :="" improvement="" if="" jjillars="" exterior="" buildings="" nearly="" internally="" avhcie="" occupied="" shai-ji="" particularly="" aavkavard.="" step="" made="" easy="" cany="" further="" oil="" octagon="" make="" xliii.="" xlvi.=""/>

220 THEUAX ARCHITECT U HE. Book V. 160. Pillar at BeniHiissiiiu. it a pillar of 16 sides, and again of 32, as was done afterguards in India, Imt, with this diffbrcnce, that in that oonntry all these polygons are found in the same pilliir, while here the same one is always carried from the base to the summit. All these variations required a marked and projecting abacus, to correspond with the lines of the Learns or entablature that rested upon them, which was not indispensably necessary when merely a square pier was en\ployed. The last improvement, and that Avhicb brought it nearest the Grecian form, was hollowing out the faces of the polygon with a reversed curve, so as to produce what is called fluting. All these kinds of pillars are found perfected in very early tombs, and may have been used from tlie most remote anti(|uity. The earliest examples exhibiting all these improvements that have come down to our. age ai'e those at Beni Hassan, excavated during the supremacy of the 12th dynasty. There both 8 and 16 sided pillars are found supp

t'llAf. II. PILLARS. mjckiiiL;" of the ciipital, but in the great exain])les executed during the 18th dynast V the pilhus eoutraet again at the base, as in the next woodeut, which gives a degree of liglitness and elegance to their otherwise too massive forms that is singularly pleasing. The best example of the order is found in the lateral colonnades of the great hall at Karnac (woodcut No. 170 farther on), but there are scarcely any of the temples of the great age that have not specimens of it. At first sight its form is so peculiar, and so unmeaning, that it has never been copied out of Egypt, though all her other orders are found elsewhere. A large class of pillars have capitals resembling the calyx or bell of a flower, but the form is so conventional, and, as no examples of the order are found of a date anterior to the great 18th dynasty, we find it (luly so far removed from its origin, that it is difficult to trace it backward to its source. The typical example of this style is found in the Ilypostyle Hall at Karnac, where the pillars are 70 ft. in height to tlie under side of the architrave, and more than half that in circumference at a little above the base. Those, hoAvever, of the Ehamession (woodcut No. 163), on the other side of the Nile, thoiTgh only 30 ft. in height, are perhaps more graceful, though certainly neither so majestic nor so characteristic of Egyptian art. Of these capitals the papyrus cup may be considered as the typical form, but there are also in Egypt some decidedly lotus forms. Sometimes the bell of the capital is adorned with palm leaves, or reeds, or conventional vegetable forms. In the Ptolemaic period the Greeks showed a peculiar preference for this order, from its resemblance to their favourite Corinthian order, which in fact was copied from it, and they adorned it, not only as the Egyptians had done, but in fifty fantastic ways, many of them far from being conducive to its appropriateness or architectural beanty. Another class of pillars is, as far as taste is concenicd, the most questionable of any. Its peculiarity consists in employing Tsis heads or figures of Typhon, or other deities, as the ornaments of its capitals. The origin of these is easily explained ; for early examples exist showing the Isis head, either painted or sculptured in low relief, on the face or faces of square piers, and gradually the relief and prominence of the head became greater and greater, and the column more and more attennated, till we conie to the typical specimen of Dendera (woodcut No. 165), of the Koman age. It cannot, however, be regarded as an example of the bad taste of modem times, as an Isis-headed capital, represented in (lie woodcut No. 164, is found Pillar from lii iii Hassun.

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228 'I'll K IJ AX ARCHITECT U RE. Book V. at Sedinga in Ethiopia, of tliu age of Amunopth III., of the 18th dynasty. ^(EH^Mk 103. Pillar, from Rhamession, 'I'lifbes. 164. I'illar, I'rom Sedinga. 'i'lii.s Older must not he eonfounded witli what ai'e sometimes, though imjuoperly, called Caryatide columns. In Egypt there are many square piers of the class described above, with Colossi placed in front of them, (»ne of which is shown in woodcut No. 100, but the figures neither support the architrave, as in Greece, nor do they serv^e to strengthen the pillar, though attached to it. They are in fact statues ranged architecturally, not architectural objects at all. No doubt they heighten the architectural effect, and constitute some of the most im])osing groTips of Egyptian art : .still they are as distinct from tlie architectuie a.s the adjacent Sphinxes or seated Colossi with wliicli tlicy unite to produce that grandeur of effect the Egyptians knew so well

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ClI.M'. II. I'LAXS. •)')i. Tlan-.s. The plans of Egyptian temples aic as various as tlic forms of fheii' pillars; so much .so, indeed, as to make it very ditlicult to describe them. The greatest and noblest is that at Karnac, but, like most Indian temples, it is an aggregation of parts around a small but sacred centre ; and having been gradually elaborated during several centuries, it presents no uniformity of jdan or design. The temple knoAvn as tlie

230 TIIK15AX AT?riITTECTUHE. IVXIK V. lihumession, on the opposite side of the Nile, is better therefore fur our piir])ose. The whole of it was built b}' Itlumiscs the Groat, in the 15th centnrv n.c, as will bo seen from the ])laii, clra•\^Tl to the iiniial scale. Its ia(;'a(le is formed by two great pylons, or pyramidal masses of masonry, which, like the two westei-n towci-s of a Gothic cathedral, are the ap])ropriate and most imposing pai't of the structure externally. Between these is the entrance doorway, leading almost invariably into a great square courtyard, with porticoes always on two, and sometimes on three sides. This leads to an inner court, smaller, but far more splendid, than the first. On the two sides of this couii, through which the central passage leads, aie square piers with colossi in fnmt, and on the right and left are double langes of circular columns, which are continued also behind the square piers fronting the entrance. Passing through this, we come to a hypostyle hall of great Ijeauty, formed by two ranges of larger columns in the centre, and three rows of smaller ones on each side. These hyjiostjde halls almost alwa^'s accompany the larger Egyptian temples of the great age. They derive their name from having luiuiuauwmuni.njiiiiiniuuDiiiiiiuii iiiuuiuuiiiniiiajinDiiiiiiiii IU7. Rbumession at Thebes. .Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. an upper range of columns, or what in Gothic architecture would be called a clerestory, through which the light is admitted to the central portion of the hall. Although some are more extensive than this, the an-angement of all is nearly similar. They possess 2 ranges of columns in tlie centre so tall as to equal the height of

Chap. II. THE RHAMESSION. KARNAC. 2^1 the sido columns together Avitli that of the attic Avliich is ])laced on them. These ai-e generally of different orders ; the central pillars having a hell-shaped capital, the under side of which is perfectly illuminated from the mode in which the light was introduced : Avhilc in the side pillars the cajjital was narrower at the top than at the bottom, appaavntly for the sake of allowing its oi-namcnts to be seen. One of the central jiillars is given (woodciit No. 163). Beyond this are always .se^ eral smaller apartments, in this instance supposed to be nine in number, but they are so ruined that it is difficult to be quite certain Avhat their arrangement was. These seem to have been lather suited to the residences of the king or priests than to the purposes of a temple, as we understand the word. Indeed, palace-temple, or templepalace, would be a more appropriate term for these buildings than to call them simply temples. They do not seem to have been appropriated to the worship of any particular god, but rather for the great ceremonials of royalty — of kingly sacrifice to the gods for the people, and of worship of the king by tlie people. He seems to have been regarded, if not as a god, at least as the representative of the gods on earth. Though the Ehamession is so grand from its dimensions, and so beautiful from its design, it is far surpassed in every respect by the palace-temple at Karnac, which is perhaps the noblest effort of architectural magnificence ever produced by the hand of man. Its principal dimensions are 1200 ft. in length, by aboiit 3 GO in width, and it covers therefore about 430,000 square ft., or more than twice the area of St. Peter's at Eome, and more than four times that of any mediaeval cathedral existing. This, however, is not a fair way of estimating its dimensions, for our churches are buildings entirely under one roof; but at Karnac a considerable portion was Tincovered by any buildings, so that no such comjiarison is just. The great hypostyle hall, however, is internally 340 ft. by 170, and, with its two pylons, it covers more than 88,000 square ft., a greater area than the cathedral of Cologne, the largest of all our northern cathedrals ; and Avhen we consider that this is only a part of a great whole, we may faiily assert that the whole is among the largest, as it undoubtedly is one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. The original part of this gi-eat group was, as before mentioned, the sanctuary or temple built by Osortasen, the great monarch of the 12th dynasty, before the Shepheni invasion. It is the only thing that seems to have been allowed to stand during the five centuries of Shepherd domination, though it is by no means clear tliat even it stood, and that it had not been pulled down by the Shepherds, and reinstated by the first kings of the 18th dynasty, an operation which was easily performed Avitli the beautiful polished granite masonry of the sanctuar}-. Be this as it may, Amenophis, the first king of the restored lace, enclosed this in a temple about 120 ft. square. Thothmes I. built in front of it a splendid hall, surrounded by colossi, backed b}- piers ; and Thothmes III. erected behind it a palace or temple, Avhich is one of the most singular buildings in Egypt. The hall is 14n ft. long by

232 TIIEBAN A1?CHITECTURE. Hook V 5.") in width intc'iiiiilly, ami llic roof siipiiurtocl by two roAvs of massive S(|uaie coluimis, ami two of circular pillars of most exceptional form, the capital being reversed, and something of the form usually found in Assyria, but never again in Egypt. Like almost all Egyptian halls, it was liglitcil fnmi the roof in the manner shown in the section, ^\ith all these additions, the temple was a complete whole, 540 ft. in length by 280 in width, at the time when the sun-worshipjiers brolce in u])on the regular succession of the great 18th dynasty. -.IT IBH. lU 2U 3U 4U 50 Section of Palace of I'hothmes III., Thtbes. When the original line was resumed, Manepthah commenced the building of the great hall, Avhich he nearly completed. Ehamses, the first king of the 19th dynasty, built the small temple in front ; and the so-called Bubastitc kings of the 22nd d-\niasty added the great court in front, completing the building to the extent we now find it. We have thus, as in some of our meditcval cathedrals, in this one temple, a complete history of the style during the whole of its most tloiii-ishing ])eriod ; and, either for interest or for beauty, it forms such a seii(\s as no other country, and no other age, can produce, liesides those buildings mentioned above, there are other temjilcs to the north, to the east, and more especially to the south, and pylons connecting these, and avenues of s])hinxes extending for miles, and enclosing walls, and tanks, and embankments, making up such a grou]i as no city ever possessed before or since. St. Teter's, with its colonnades, and the Vatican, make up an immense mass, but as insignificant in extent as in style when compared with this glory of ancient Thebes and its surrounding temjilcs. The culminating ])oint and climax of all this group of building is the hypostyle hall of ]\Ianei)thah. The accompanying i)lan, and section of its central portion, both to the usual scale, will explain its general an-angenient ; but no language can convey an idea of its beauty, and no artist has yet been able to re])roduce its form so as to convey to those who have not seen it an idea of its grandeur. The mass of its central piers, illumined by a flood of light from the clerestory, and the smaller i)illars of the wings gradually fading into obscurity, are so arranged and lighted as to convey an idea of infinite space ; at the same time, the beauty and massiveness of the forms, and the brilliancy of their coloured decorations, all combine to stamj) this as the greatest . of man's architectural works ; but .such a one as it would be impossible

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ClIAl-. II. tf:mples. 2;};! ti) ro]ivo(lncc, cxco])t in sxich a climate and in Ili.il iiiilivi(lii;il stvlr in which, and lor which, it was created. On tho same side of the Nile, and connected with it by an avenne of sphinxes, stands the temple of Lnxor, hardly inferior in some respects 169. Plan of Ilypostyle Hall at Karnac. Scale molt, to 1 in. 170. Section of central ponion of Hyposty le Hall at Karnai-. Scale 50 ft. to I in. to its great rival at Karnac ; but cither it was never finished, or, OAvinp; to its proximity to the Nile, it has been mined, and the materials carried away. The length is abont 800 ft.. its breadth ranging from 100 to 200 ft. Its general arrangement comprised, first, a great court

234 THERAN ARCHITECTURE. Book Y. at a fliflFeront aii,o:le from the rest, being turned so as to face Kaniac. In front of this standtwo coh^ssi of Jihanises the Great, its founder, and two obelisks were once also there, one of which is now in J'aris. Behind this Avas once a great hypostyle hall, but only the two central ran«'-es of columns are now standing. Slill further back Avere smaller halls and numerous apartments, evidently meant for the khigs residence, rather than for a temple or place exclusively devoted to Avorshij). The palace at Luxor is further remarkable as a striking instance of hoAV regardless the Egyptians were of regularity and symmetry in tlicir plans. IS'ot only is there a considerable angle in the direction of tlie axis of the building, but the angles of the courtyards are hardly ever right angles ; the pillars are variously spaced, and pains seem to have been gratuitously taken to make it as irregidar as possible in nearly every respect. All that part on the soiitheni end was erected by Amenophis III., the northern part completed by Khamses the Great, the same who built the Ehamession already described as situated on the other bank of the Nile. Besides these there stood on the western side of the Kile the jNIemnoniuni, or great tem})le of Amenophis III., now almost entirely ruined, having been placed on the alluvial i)lain, Avithin tin* limits of the inundation, which has tended on the one hand to bury it, and on the other to facilitate the removal of its materials. Nearly the only remains of it now apparent are the two gi'eat seated colossi of its founder, one of which, when broken, became in Greek, or rather l\oman times, the vocal Memnon, whose plaintive Avail to the rising sun, over its own and its country's desolation, forms so prominent an incident in the Eoman accounts of Thebes. Not far from this stood the great temple of 1^ Medinet-Habou, built by L'hamses III., the first ^ ' king of the 19th dynasty. This, though scarcely inferior in size to its neighbour, shoAvs a mani^ fest inferiority of art, — as if I^gypt's great days ^ Avere already fast passing aAvay. Further doAAni ^ the riA^er stood another temple, that of Gournou, E3 built by the same IManepthali who erected the great hall of Karnac. This, hoAvcA^er, appears only to have been a residence, and both in style and size the least remarkable of the great buildings whose wondrous remains still adoni the site of the hundred-gated city. Another building of this age, attached to the southeni side of the gi-eat temple at Karnac, deserves especial attention as being a perfectly regular building, erected at one time, and according to the original design, and lieing literally a 0 I 171. So\ub Temple of ICarnac. Soilf 10(1 ft. to 1 in.

ClIAl'. II. TEMPLES. 235 \T2. Section on A B of above. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. tcmplo, without anytliing about it that conhl justify the supposition of its boiiic; .1 palaco. It was erected hy the first king of tlio 19th dynasty, and consists of two pylons, approached through an avenue of sphinxes. AN'ithin this is an hypa^tliral court, and heyond that a small hypostyle hall, lighted from above, as shoAvn in the section. AVithin this is the cell, surrounded by a passage, and with a smaller hall beyond, all apparently dark, or very imperfectly lighted. The gateway in fi'ont of the avenue was erected by the Ptolemies, and, like many Egyptian buildings, placed at a different angle to the direction of the building itself. Besides its intrinsic beauty, this temple is interesting as being far more like the temjiles erected afterwards under the Greek and Eoman domination than anything else belonging to that early age. There are, or were, many other great works of this great age scattered over the wdiole length and breadth of the country, from Tanis, or Soan, near the mouth of the Kile, Avliere the remains of 13 obelisks can still be traced, to Soleb, on the borders of Kubia, where now stands a temple of the third Amenophis, scarcely inferior in beauty or magnificence to those of the capital. Those at Memphis, at Abydos, many of those at Thebes, and elsewhere, are so completely ruined, that it is impossible to restore them, or to judge of their eifect architecturally. Kor do they seem to possess any peculiarities which are not found in those already mentioned.

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2;?6 M(1PEH\ AIU^HITECTUHE. Book V. CHAPTER III. MODERN STYLES. CONTENTS. Decline of art — Temples at Dendera — Kalabsche — PhiUc — Mammeisi — Rock-cut examples — Ipsamboul — Tombs — Labyrinths — Obelisks— Domestic architecture. W^^ssmm^^^MMm^^, Fko.m the time of the 19th dynasty. Avith a slight revival under the Bubahtite kings of the 22nd dynasty, Egypt sank thiongh a long period of decay, till her misfortunes were consummated by the invasion of the Persians under Canibyses, 525 b.c. From that time she served in a bondage more destructive, if not so galling, as that of the She])herd domination, till relieved b}- the more enlightened policy of the Ptolemies. L'nder them she enjoyed tis great material prosperity as under the Pharaohs ; and her architecture and her arts too revived, not, it is true, with the greatness oi- the purity of the great national era, but still with much richness and material s})lendour. Some of the temples of this age are, as far as dimensions and richness of decorations are concerned, (piite wtirthy of tlu' great ag(\ though their plans and arrangements dift'er to a consideralde extent. There is now no hesit;ttion as to whether they should be called temples or palaces : all is now exclusively devoted to worship, --and to the worsliip of a heavenly God. not of a deified king. 17.^. Plan of Temple at Edfou, ApoUonopolis Magint. Scale 100 fl. to I in.

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CllAl'. 111. TEMl'LES. What these arrangeinents are will be well understood from the annexed ])lan of that of Kdfon (woodont No. 173), which, t]K)n

238 MODE UN ARCHITECTURE. EooK V. sidercd as a fair specimen of its class, tliough inferior in dimensions to many of tliose of the great Fharaonie age. \\ itliin these is a court, 140 ft. by 161, surrounded by a colonnade on thi-ee sides, and rising by easy steps, the whole width of the court, to the porch or poi-tico which, in rtolemaic temples, takes the place of the great hypostyle halls of the I'haraolis. It is lighted from the front over low screens placed between each of the pillars, a peculiarity scarcely ever found in temples of earlier date, though apparently common in domestic edifices, or those formed of wood, certainly as early as the middle of the 18tli dynasty, as may be seen from the annexed woodcut (No. 175), 175. Bas-relief at Tell el Aiuarna. taken from a tomb of one of the sun-worshipinng kings, who reigned between Amenophis III. and ITcmis. From this we pass into an inner and smaller porch, and again through two passages to a dark and mysterious sanctuary, surrounded by darker passages and chambers, well calculated to mystify and strike with awe any worshipper or neophyte who might be admitted to their gloomy precincts. The celebrated temple at Uendcra is similar to this, and slightly larger, but it has no forecourt, no propylons, and no enclosing outer walls. Its facade is given in the next woodcut (No. 176). Its Isisheaded columns are not equal to those of Edfou in taste or grace ; but it has the advantage of situation, and this temple is not encumbered I'ither by sand or huts, as the other is, so that its effect on travellers is always moie striking. 176. Facade of Temple at Dendera.

(.'llAl'. 111. TEMPLES. 239 ;^^^^^^:s£S^ The Koman temple at Kalabsclie (woodcut No. 177), above the (^ataract, is a fair specimen of these temples on a smaller scale. The section (woodcait Ko. 178) shows one of the juodesby which a scanty light was introduced into the inner cells, 177. Plan of Temple at Kalabsclie. and their gradation in height. The position, too, of its propyluns is a striking instance of the irregularity which distinguishes all the later Egyptian styles from that of the rigid, proportion- loving, pyramid-builders of Memphis. This irregularity of plan was nowhere carextent as in the Ptolemaic Here no two -eP?^ ried to such, an extent as in the Ptolemain (V-^ temple on the island of Philaj. l)uildings, scarcely any two walls, are on the same axis or parallel to one another. No Gothic architect in his wildest moments ever played so freely with his lines or dimensions, and none, it must bo added, ever produced anything so beautifully picturesque as this. It contains all the play of light and shade, all the variety of Gothic art, with the massiveness and grandeur of the Egyptian style ; and as it is still tolerably entire, and retains much of its colour, there is no building out of Thebes that gives so favourable an impression of Egyptian art as this. It is true it is far less sublime than many, but hardly one can be quoted as more beaiitifnl than it is. --J tl-rx^j a J-i/^ .r^.^Si 179. View of Temple at Pbila:.

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240 MODEUN ARCHITECTURE. Hook V IbU. J'lau of Temple at Philae. Nolwithstaiidiiis; its ivrognlaritv, fliis toiii])]e lias the aclvantaj;e of being luarly all ni" the same age, and erected aeetpding to one plan, wliile the gi'eater Imihlings at Thebes are often aggregations of ])arts of ditterent ages ; and though each is beautiful in itself, the result is often nt)t quite si» hariuunious as niight be desired. In this resijeet the I'toleniaie temples eertainl}' have the advantage, inasmueli as they are all of one age, and all completed according to the plan on which they were designed, a circumstance which, to some extent at least, eom]iensates for their marked inferiority in size and style, and the littleness of all the oinaments and details as !li*i3Sil M lompared Avith those of the rharaonic £• ej ipl^^ period. It must at the same time he *-i*:^ fi^JfeS admitted that this inferiority is more apparent in the sculpture of the Ttolemaic age than in its architecture. The general design of the buildings is frequently grand and imposing, but the details are always inferior ; and the sculi)ture and jjainting, Avhich in the great age add so much to the beauty of the whole, are in the Ptolemaic age always frittered away, ill-arranged, and unmeaning — injurious to _,.._..., ^^^^ general etiect instead of heightening and improving it. Mammkisi. Besides the temples above described, which are all more or less comidex in i)lan, and all made iip of various inde}tendent parts, there exists iu J^gypt a class of temples called 7nammeisi, dedicated to the mysterious accouchement of the mother of the gods. Small temples of this form are common to all ages, and belong as well to the 18th dynasty as to the time of the Ptolemies. One of them, built by Amenoidiis HI. at Ele]diantine, is represented ill jtlan and elevation in the annexed cut. It is of a simple ])eristylar form, with columns in front aiid rear-, resembling that shown in Avoodcut No. 157, and 7 square ]>iers on each tlauk. These temi)les are all small, and, like the Tyjihonia, which somewhat resemlde them, were used as detached chapels or cells, deiiendent on the larger temples. What renders l!>l. Manuucisi al Klepliaiitiiiu.

CiiAr. 111. ROCK-CUT TKMrLE8. 241 llu'iii moro than usually interesting to us is the fact that they were uii(l(»u1)t{>(lly the originals of the Greek pcristylar forms, that people having horrowed nearly every peculiarity of their arts fi-oni the banks of the Nile. We possess the tangible evidence of peristylar temples and ])roto-I)(nic pillars, erected in Egypt centuries before the oldest known specimen in Greece. We need therefore hardly hesitate to award the palm of invention of these things to the Egyptians, as wo should probably be forced to do of most of the arts and sciences of the Greeks if we had only knowledge sufficient to connect them, EocK-cDT Tombs and Temples. Both in Eg;yq-)t Proper and in Nubia the Egyptians were in the habit of excavating monuments from the living rock, but with this curious distinction, that, with scarcely an exception, all the excavations in Egypt Projier are tombs, and no important example of a rock-cut temple has yet been found. In Nubia, on the other hand, all the excavations are temples, and no tombs of importance are to bo found anywhere. This distmction may hereafter lead to important historical deductions, inasmixch as on the western side of India there are, as has already been pointed out, an infinite number of rock-cut temples, but no tombs of any sort. Ever}^ circumstance seems to point to the fact that, if there was any connection between Africa and India, it was with the provinces of the upper part of the Valley of the Nile, and not with Egypt Proper. This, however, is a subject that can hardly be entered on here, though it may be useful to bear in mind the analogy alluded to. Like all rock-cut examples all over the world, these Nubian temples are copies of stnictural buildings, only more or less mcnlified to suit c^s^. 182. riau and Section of Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul. Scale for plan 100 ft. to 1 in.; section 50 ft. to 1 in. R

242 MODERN AUCHITECTUKK. Book V. the exigencies uf their situation, which did not admit of any very great development inside, as light and air could only be introduced from the one opening of the doorway. The two principal examples of this class of monument are the two at Ipsamboul, the largest of which is the finest of its class known to exist anywhere. Its total depth from the face of the rock is 150 ft., divided into 2 large halls and 3 cells, with passages connecting them. Externally the facade is about 100 ft. in height, and adorned by 4 of the most magniificent colossi in Egypt, each 70 ft. in height, and representing the King Iihamses II., who caused the excavation to be made. It may be because they are more perfect than any others now foiuid in that country, but certainly nothing can exceed their calm majest}^ and beaiity, or be more entirely free from the vulgarity and exaggeration which is generally a characteristic of colossal works of this sort. The smaller temple at the same place has (j standing figures of deities countersunk in the rock, and is carved with exceeding richness. It is of the same age with the large temple, but not to be compared with it owing to the inferiority of the design. Besides these, there is a very beautiful though small example at Kalabsche, likewise belonging to the age of Khamses II., and remarkable for the beauty of its sculptural bas-reliefs, as well as for the bold proto-Doric columns which adorn its vestibule. There are also smaller ones at Derri and Balagne, at the upper end of the valley. At Essabua, Girsheh, and Dandour, the cells of the temple have been excavated fiom the rock, but their courts and propylons are stnictural buildings added in front— a combination never found in Egypt, and very rare anywhere else, although meeting the difficulties of the case better than any other arrangement, inasmuch as the sanctuary has thus all the imperishability and mystery of a cave, and the temidc at the same time has the space and external appearance of a building standing in the open air. This last arrangement is found also as a characteristic of the temples of Gibel Barkal, in the kingdom of Meroe, showing how far the rockcutting practice prevailed in the upper Valley of the Nile. As all these temples arc contemiiorary with the great structures in Egypt, it seems stiange that the eternity of a rock-cut example did not recommend this form of temple to the attention of the Egyptians themselves. But with the exception of a small grotto, called the Specs Ai-temidos, near Beni Hassan, and two small caves at Silsilis. near the cataract, the Egyptians seem never to have attempted it, trusting apparently to the solidity of their masonic structures for that cteniity of duration they aspired to. Tombs. Of the first 10 djTiasties of Egyptian kings nothing now lemainsbut their tcjmbs— the everlasting pyramids— and little or nothing of the l>eople they governed but the structures and rock-cut excavations which they prc])avcd for their final resting-]dacos. The 'i'heban kings and llieir subjects built }io pyiamids. and none of theii- tombs are built, — all are excavated from the living rock ; and from Beni Ilas.san to the cataract, the plain of the Nile is everj'whcic

Chap. 111. TOMBS. 24;? l'ring(jd witli these sini;ul;irm()ininients. which, if taken in tlie aggregate, perhaps required a greater amount of labour to excavate and to adorn than did even all the ediiices (_»f the plain. Certain it is that there is far more to "be leaint of the ai-ts, of the habits, and of 1 he history of Egypt f)om these tombs than from all the other monuments. No tomb of any king of the Theban dynasties has yet been discovered anterior to the 18th dynasty; but all the tombs of that and of the subsequent dynasty have been found, or are known to exist, in the Valley of Biban-el-Melouk, on the western side of the plain of Thebes. It seems to have been the custom with these Ivings, as soon as they ascended the throne, to begin preparing their final resting-place. The excavation seems to have gone on uninterruptedly year by year, the painting and adornment being finished as it progressed, till the hand of death ended the king's reign, and simultaneously the works of liis tomb. All was left unfinished ; the cartoon of the painter and the rough work of the mason and plasterer weie suddenly broken off, as if the hour of the king'sdemise called them tooirrevocably from their labours. The tomb thus became an index of the t o •a e a R 2

■-^^ MUDEKX ARCHITECTURE. Woon V. 1oiii;th of a king's inij^n, as well as of liis iii igiiificeiHH!. ( )f those in the \ alley of the Kings, the most s])leiitli(l is that ojiened by Uelzoni, anil now kiiowTi a.s that of Maucpthah, the builder of the lIyi)o.stylc hall at Kaniac. It descends, in a sloping diiection, for about 350 ft. into the nioiuitain, the upper half of it being tolerably regular in plan and diieetion ; but after progressing as far as the unfinished hall with 2 pillars, the direction changes, and the works begin again on a lower level, probably because they came in contact with some other tomb, or in consecpience of meeting some flaw in the rock. It now terminates in a large and sjdendid chamber with a coved roof, in which stood, when opened by Belzoni, the rifled sarcophagus ; but a drift-wa}- has lieen carried beyond this, as if it had been intended to carry it still further had the king continued to reign. The tomb of lihamses Maiamoun, the first king of the 19th dynasty, is more regular, and in some respects as magnificent as this, and that of Amenophis III. is also an excavation of great beauty, and adorned with paintings of the very best age. Like all the tombs, however, they depend for their magiiificence more on the [laintings that adoni the walls than on anything which can strictly be called architecture, so that they hardly come properl}^ within the scope of the present work : and the same is true of private tondjs. Except those of lien i Hassan, already illustrated by woodcut No. 1(1 1, they are all either mere chambers or corridors, without architectural (unament, but with their walls covered with paintings and hierogly])hics of singular interest and beauty. Generally speaking, it is assumed that the entrances of these tombs were meant to be concealed and hidden from the knowledge of the people after the king's death. It is hardl}- conceivable, however, that so much pains should have been taken, and so much money lavished, on what was designed never again to testify to the magnificence of its fomider. It is also very xudike the sagacity of the Egyptians to attempt what was so nearly impossible ; for though the entrance of a pyramid might be so built up as to be unrecognisable, a cutting in the rock can never be repaired or disguised, and only temporarily concealed by heaping nibbish over it. Supposing it to have been intended to conceal the entrances, such an expedient was as clumsy and inilikcly to have been resorted to by so ingenious a people as it has proved futile, for all the royal tombs in the Valley of Biban-el-Melouk have been opened and rifled in ancient times, and their sites and numbers were matters of public notoriety in the times of the Greeks and Romans. Many of the private tombs have architectural fa(;ade8, and certainly never were meant to be concealed, so that it is not fair to assume that hiding their tombs' entrances was ever a peculiarity of the Thcbans, though it certainly was of the earlier Memphites. Labyrinths. Among the miscellaneous monuments of Egypt, the one that excited the greatest wonder in the minds of the Greeks, not even excepting the pyramids, was the great Labyrinth, erected, it was said, by Mceris, close to the lake bearing his name. Till recently its site was a matter of dispute. It is rightly placed in Sir G. Wilkinson's map of the

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CllAF. 111. LAr.YlilNTllS. *24.') Fiiyoom, i)ii1)Hs1kmI in 1H28; but tlio question was not entirely net at rust till it was alhsolutoly dctcnuinod by Mi-. Terrintj:; when cni])loyed by Colonel Vysc, and the whole was afterwards excavated by the officers ot the Prussian expedition under Lepsius. Like everything, however, of interest discovered by that savant, the information obtained is kept Itaek, and we have only imperfect sketches of its general form. From .Ar*i %. --z '.1 ! ■ A^^)% ■—fM-"''— IS-l. 'mmiimri. m i/iK% '4fiir 500 these it appears that it was a building about lloO ft. east and west, by 8.50 north and south, sunounding 3 sides of a courtyard 500 ft. in one direction by 600 ft. in the other; the fourth side was occupied by a small pyi-amid of rather more than 300 ft. square (Strabo says 400). A number of small chambers, two stories in height, have been found, but nothing indicating that magnificence which so excited tlie astonishment of the Greeks. The fticility of water-carriage may have enabled those who subsequently occupied the country to remove all the more precious materials, as they have done from Memphis. P]nougli remains to confirm to a sm-jirising extent the accounts of Herodotus and Strabo, at least so far as we can judge 185.

24G MODERN AKCHITECTUllE. Book V. from the meagi'e accounts of the excavation that have been made l)ul)lic ; but till the whole are available, it is needless either attempting to reason on them, or to attempt any restoration of the whole. The name of Amememha, of the 12th dynasty, has been found among the ruins, proving what was before conjectured, that he was in reality the founder of the monument in question ; and if the pyramid be really his se])ulchre, as Strabo assei'ts, it would prove that the fashion of burying in pyramids was not extinct, in Lower Egypt at least, even after the accession of the 12th djniasty. This, however, and many other points of interest, must remain unsettled till the results of recent explorations are made public. Obelisks. Another class of monuments, almost exclusively Egj^ptian, are the obelisks which form such striking objects in front of almost all the old temples of the countr}'. Small models of obelisks are found in the tombs of the age of the Ijyramid-builders, and represented in their hieroglyphics ; but the oldest public monimient of the class known to exist is that at Ileliopolis, erected by Osortasen, the gi-eat king of the 12th djTiasty. It is, like all the others, a single block of beautiful red granite of Syene, cut with all the precision of the age, tapering slightly towards the summit, and of about the average proportion, being about 10 diameters in height ; exclusive of the top it is 07 ft. 4 in. The two finest known to exist are, that now in the piazza of the Lateran, erected by Thothmes III., 105 ft. in height, and that still existing at Kamac, erected by Thothmes I., 93 ft. 0 in. in height. Those of Luxor, erected by Khamses the Great, one of which is now in Paris, are above 77 ft. in height ; and there are 2 others in Home, each above 80 ft. Rome, indeed, has 12 of these monuments within her walls — a greater number than exist, erect at least, in the country whence they came, though, judging fiom the niunber that are found adorning single temples, it is difficult to calculate how many must once have existed in Egypt. Their use seems to have been wholly that of UKmumental ]>illars, recording the style and titles of the king who erected them, his l)iety, and the proof he gave of it in dedicating these monoliths to the deity whom he especially wished to hcmour. It has been remarked that, with scarcely an exception, all the pyramids are on the west side of the Kile, all the obelisks on the cast: with regard to the fonner class of monument, this ]uobably arose from a law of their existence, the western side of the Nile being in all ages preferred for sepulture, but with regard to the latter it seems to be accidental. Memphis doubtless possessed many monuments of this class, and there is reason to believe that the western temples of Thebes were also similaily adorned. They are, however, momnuents easily broken ; and, from their form, so singularly useful for many building purposes, that it is not to be wondered at if many of them have di.sajjiieared • luring tlu" many centuries that have elapsed since the greater numbei" of them were erected.

Cii.vr. ill. DOMESTIC AKCH ITECTURE. 247 DoM ESTIC AUOH IT KCT U H K. Exce])t Olio Biiiall royal pavilion at Medinet Ilalioii, no Htnictuie now leniains in Egypt that can fairly be claimed as a specimen of the domestic arcliitecture of the ancient Egyptians ; but at the same time we possess, in paintings and sci\l})tures, so many illustrations of their domestic habits, so many plans, elevations, and views, and even models of their dwellings of every class, that we have no difficulty in forming a correct judgment not only of the style, but of the details, of their domestic architecture. Although their houses exhibited nothing of the solidity and monumental character which distinguished their temples and palaces, they seem in their own kind to have been scarcely less beautiful. They were of course on a smaller scale, and built of more perishable materials, but they appear to have been as carefully finished, and decorated with the same taste displayed in the greater works. We know also, from the tombs that remain to us, that, although the government of Egypt was a despotism of the strictest class, still the wealth of the land was pretty equally difiused among all classes, and that luxury and splendour were by no means confined either to the royal family or within the precincts of the palace. There is thus every reason to believe that the cities which have passed away were worthy of the temples that adorned them, and that the streets were as splendid and as tasteful as the public buildings themselves, and displayed, though in a more ephemeral fonn, the same wealth and power which still astonish us in the great monuments that remain. No building can form a greater contrast with the temple behind it than does the little pavilion erected at Medinet Habou by Rhamses, the 1.S6. I'avilion at JMciiiiut. Uabou. V'ww of i'avilion at iMclinct Habou. first king of the 19th dynasty. As will be seen by the annexed plan (woodcut No, ISO), it is singularly broken and varied in its outline, surrounding a small court in the shape of a cross. It is 8 stories in height, and, properly speaking, consists of only 3 rooms on each floor, connected together by long winding passages. There is reason, however, to believe that this is only a fragnnent of the building, and fomidations exist which render it probable that the whole was originally a square of the width of the front, and had other chambers, probably onl}'^ in wood or brick, besides those we now find. This would hardly detract from the playful character of the design, and when

248 MODERN AliCHITECTURE. Book V l«(<. kk="" of="" a="" iiousp.="" i="" an="" egyptian="" paintii="" coloured="" as="" it="" origirically="" w="" and="" with="" its="" battlements="" or="" oniamenls="" complete="" must="" have="" formed="" composition="" pleasing="" is="" unlike="" tisnal="" conceptions="" ai="" the="" other="" illustration="" represents="" in="" egyptians="" own="" quaint="" style="" dwelling="" uppei="" story="" apparently="" being="" like="" those="" assyrians="" open="" gallery="" sup="" by="" dwarf="" colunnis.="" lower="" windows="" are="" closed="" shutters.="" centre="" staircase="" leading="" to="" upper="" stoiy="" on="" left="" hand="" o="" suppoiled="" wooden="" pillars="" which="" seems="" been="" indispensable="" part="" all="" better="" class="" dwellings.="" generally="" speaking="" these="" hoxises="" shown="" situated="" gardens="" laid="" out="" formal="" pavilions="" fishponds="" accompaniments="" east="" at="" present="" day.="" conveniences="" elegances="" building="" they="" seem="" anticipated="" that="" has="" done="" countries="" do="" indeed="" probability="" ancient="" surpassed="" modem="" respects="" much="" did="" more="" important="" forms="" architecture.="" taken="" altogether="" perhaps="" may="" be="" safely="" asserted="" were="" most="" essentially="" people="" ac="" tainted="" successful="" attempted="" this="" way.="" greeks="" tnie="" them="" refinement="" beauty="" detail="" sculpture="" oniamcnted="" their="" buildings="" gothic="" architects="" far="" excelled="" constructive="" cleveitiess="" but="" besides="" no="" can="" put="" competition="" them.="" same="" time="" neither="" grecian="" nor="" understood="" perfectly="" gradations="" art="" exact="" character="" should="" given="" every="" foi-m="" detail.="" whether="" was="" flat-sided="" pyramid="" erowded="" massive="" hall="" playful="" luxurious="" both="" how="" make="" general="" design="" express="" exactly="" what="" he="" wanted="" vanous="" materials="" contril:="" effect.="" also="" than="" any="" nation="" iise="" com1="" architecture="" colossi="" avenues="" sphinxes="" gi="" themselves="" into="" parfs="" one="" great="" use="" historical="" paintings="" fading="" insensible="" degrees="" hieroglyphics="" linking="" whole="" together="" highest="" phonetic="" utterance="" brilliant="" colouring="" thus="" hanuonising="" arts="" unsuii="" ajiythiug="" liiuj="" seen="" during="" thirty="" centuries="" stniggle="" aspiration="" elapsed="" since="" days="" kingdom="" pharaohs.=""/>

CiiAi'. IV. ^:TlllOriAN AUClIITECTUliK. 249 CHAPTER IV. ETHIOriA. CONTENTS. Kingdom of Meroe — Pyramids — Invention of the Arch. It was long a question with tlie learned whether civilisation ascended or descended the Nile-r-whether it was a fact, as the Greeks evidently believed, that Meroe was the parent state whence the Egyptians had migrated to the north, bringing with them the religion and the arts which afterwards flourished at Thebes and Memphis, — or whether these had been elaborated in the fertile plains of Egypt, and oidy in later times had extended to the Upper Nile. IJecent discoveries have rendered it nearly certain that the latter is the correct statement of the facts — within historic times at least — that the fertile and easily cultivated Delta was first occupied and civilised, then Thebes, and afterwards Meroii. At the same time it is by no means improbable that the Ethiopians were of the same stock as the Thebans, though differing essentially from the Memphites, and that the former may have regarded these remote kindred with respect, perhaps oven with a degree of half-superstitious reverence due to their remote situation in the centre of a thinly peopled continent, and have in consequence invented those fables which the Greeks interpreted too literally. If any such earlier civilisation existed in these lands, its records and its monuments have perished. No building is now found in Meroe whose date extends beyond the time of the great king Tirhakah, of the 25th Egyptian dynasty, B.C. 724 to 680, unless it be those bearing the name of one king, Amoum Gori, who was connected with the intruding race of sim- worshippers, which broke in u];)on the continuous succession of the kings of the 1 8th dynasty. Their* monuments were all i)urposely destroyed by their successors ; and the only records we have of them are the grottoes of Tell el Amama, covered with their sculptures, which bear, it must be confessed, considerable resemblance in (style to those found in Ethiopia. Even this indication is too slight to be of much value ; and we must wait for some further confirmation before founding any reasoning upon it. The principal monuments of Tirhakah are two temples at GiVcl Barkal, a singular isolated mount near the great southern bend of the river. One is a large first-class temple, of puiely i]gyptian form and design, about 500 ft. in length, by 120 or 140 in width, consisting of

2oU 1<:tu lupi="" an="" arcilltect="" u="" ke.="" liook="" v.="" two="" j="" courts="" with="" their="" propylons="" and="" the="" intuinal="" halla="" .sanctuaries="" are="" ananged="" luucli="" like="" those="" of="" khamession="" at="" no.="" so="" nearly="" also="" on="" same="" scale="" as="" to="" make="" it="" prohable="" that="" one="" is="" a="" copy="" other.="" other="" temple="" placed="" near="" this="" but="" usual="" unsymmetrically="" consists="" outer="" hall="" internally="" about="" ft.="" by="" whose="" ruof="" supported="" ranges="" columns="" all="" capitals="" representing="" figures="" typhon="" or="" busts="" isis.="" leads="" inner="" cell="" sanctuary="" cut="" in="" rock.="" there="" smaller="" remains="" strewed="" indicating="" existence="" city="" spot="" nothing="" architectural="" imjjortance.="" most="" remarkable="" monuments="" nubian="" kingdom="" pyramids="" which="" great="" groups="" have="" been="" discovered="" described.="" jjrincipal="" gtoup="" place="" called="" dankelah="" assumed="" site="" ancient="" meroii="" latitude="" north.="" another="" gibel="" barkal="" third="" nourri="" few="" miles="" lower="" down="" than="" last="" named="" probably="" only="" necropolis="" city.="" fig.="" mcroe.="" from="" hoskins="" travels="" ethiopia.="" kio.="" plan="" principal="" group.="" i="" inch.="" section="" elevation="" marked="" a.="" compared="" memphite="" examples="" these="" insignificant="" size="" largest="" being="" square="" meroe="" none="" exceed="" each="" way.="" they="" differ="" fonn="" egj="" much="" steeper="" height="" generally="" equal="" width="" base.="" possess="" roll-moulding="" angles="" little="" porch="" pronaos="" attached="" side="" omamented="" sculpture="" forming="" either="" chapel="" more="" where="" coffin="" deceased="" was="" placed.="" know="" greeks="" far="" concealing="" bodies="" dead="" ethiopians="" had="" manner="" preserving="" them="" some="" trans="">

UiiAi-. IV. INVENTION OF THE ARCH. 251 parent substance, so as to render tliem permanently visible after death.' To those familiar with the rigid orientation of those of Lower Eg}' i)t, perhaps the most striking peculiarity of them is tlie more than Theban irregularity with which they are arranged, no two being ever placed, except by accident, at the same angle to the meridian, but the whole being grouped with the most picturescpie irregularity, as chance seemed to dictate. Among their constructive peculiarities it may be mentioned that they seem all to have been first built in successive terraces, each diminishing from that below it, something like the great pyramid at Saccara (woodcut No. 158), and were afterwards smoothed over by the external coating. liike the temples of GibelBarkal, all these buildings seem to belong to the Tirhakah epoch of the Ethiopian kingdom. It is extremely improbable that any of them are as old as the time of Solomon, or that any are later than the age of Cambyses, every indication seeming to point to a date between these two great epochs in the connection of African history and that of Asia. The ruins at Wady-elrOoatib, a little further up the Nile than Meroe, should perhaps be also mentioned here, if only from the importance given to them by Heeren, who thought he had discovered in them the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Ammon. They are, however, all in the debased style of the worst age of Ptolemaic or Roman art in this (Country. They are wholly without hieroglyphics, or any indication of sanctity or importance, and there can be little doubt that they are the remains of a caravanserai on the great commercial route between Egypt and Axoum, along which the greater part of the trade of the East arrived at Alexandria in the days of its magnificence. Invention of the Arch. Before leaving the subject of Egyptian architecture, it may be as well briefly to refer to the invention of the true arch, regarding which considerable misconception still exists. It is generally supposed that the early Egyptians were ignorant of the tnie principles of the arch, and only employed two stones meeting one another at a certain angle in the centre when they wished to cover a larger space than could conveniently be done by a single block. This, however, seems to be a mistake, as many of the tombs and chambers aroimd the pyramids are roofed by stone arches of a semicircular form, and perfect in eveiy respect as far as the principles of the arch are concerned. Several of these have been drawn by Lcpsius, and are engraved in his work, but, as no text accompanies them, and tlie drawings are not on a sxiflicicnt scale to make out the hieroglyphics, where any exist, their date cannot now be ascertained. Consequently these examples ' Herodotus, iii. 24. Diodonis. ii. U'>.

252 K'J'lilOPlAN ARCHITECTURK. Book V. caimut yet be used us the fuundatiuii of any argiuuent on the siibjeet, tliuugh the curved furin of the roofs in the third pyramid would alone be sufficient to render it more than probable that during the period of the 4th dynasty the Egyptians were familiar with this expedient. At Bcni Hassan, during the time of the 12th dynasty, cui"viliiiear forms rea})pear in the loofs (woodcut No. 1(30), used in such a manner 518 to render it almost certain that they are coi)ied from roofs of constniction. IJehind the Ehamession at Thebes there are a series of arches in l)rick, which seem undoubtedly to belong to the same age ' as the building itself; and Sir G. Wilkinson mentions a tomb at Thebes, the roof of which is vaulted with bricks, and still bears the name of Amenoph I., of the 18tli dynasty. The temple at Abydos, erected by Khamses II., shows the same peculiarity as the tombs at Beni Hassan, of a flat segmental arch thrown across between the stone architraves. In this instance it is also a copy in stone, but such as must have been copied from brick constniction. There is also every reason to believe that the apartments of the little pavilion at Medinet Ilabou (Woodcut No. 180) were covered with semicircular vaults, though these have now disappeared.^ In Ethiopia Mr. Hoskins found stone arches vaulting the roofs of the porches of the pyramids, perfect in construction, and, what is still more singular, showing both circular and pointed forms. These, as before remarked, are probably of the time of Tirhakah, or, at all events, not earlier than the age of Solomon, nor later than that of C'ambyses. In the age of Psammeticus we have several stone arches in the neighbourhood of the pyramids ; one, in a tomb at Saccara, has been frequently drawn ; but one of the most instructive is that in a tomb discovered by Colonel Campbell (woodcut No. 190), showing a \ \^ very primitive fonn of an aroh composed of 3 stones u_ I ^ : -z only, and above that is another arch of regular con'"-' ^ struction of 4 courses. In his researches at Nimroud, Layard discovered vaulted drains and chambers below the north-west and south-east edifices, ^-^ — '",.' — ^^~tj,r which were consequently as old as the 8th or Dth cen•' tury before our era, and contemiiorarv with those in 190. Soclion of Tomb near ^, '' -i rii •• rm ",. i ,^ ■ ^ the Pyramids of uizeb. the pyramids ot Mcroc. incy were ot both circular and pointed foims, and constructed apparently with great care and attention to the principles of the arch (woodcut No. 191). The great discovery of this class is that of the city gates at Khorsabad, which, as mentioned above (p. 173), were spanned by arches • if semicircular form, so perfect both in construction and in the mode ill v.liich they were oiTiamented, as to prove that in the time of Saigon the arch was a usual and well-understood building expedient, and one consequently which we may fairly assume to have been long in use. ' ' l\t,7|itaiKl TliL'bes,' jip. 81 and 126. " Wilkinson's ' JIanners and Customs of the Egyptians,' vol. iii. p. 263.

ClIAl'. IV. INVKNTION OF TJIE AllCll. 263 V "">#','.>■ ■*/'!; So far as wc can now uiKlcrstaiid IVoin tlic discoA'encs that have luH'ii nuulc, it seems tliat the Assyrians used the pointed arch for tunnels, aqueducts, and gcucM'ally for underground work where they feared great superineunibcnt picssiu'c on the apex, and the round arch above ground where that was not to be dreaded; and in this they probably showed moie science and discrimination than we do in such works. In Europe the oldest arch is probably that of the Cloaca Maxima at Ivome, constructed under the early kings. It is of stone in 3 rims, and shows as perfect a knowledge of the principle as any subsequent example. Its lasting iminjuied to the present day 191. vaulted Drain beueaih the SoutU-Kast Palace at Nimroud. ])voves how well the art \vas then imderatood, and, by inference, how long it must liave been jiractiscd before reaching that degree of perfection. From all this it becomes almost certain that the arch was used as early as the times of the pyramid-builders of the -itli djmasty, and was c(ipied in the tombs of Beni Hassan in the 1 2th ; though it may be that the earliest existing oxam})le cannot be dated further back than the tirst kings of the 18th dynasty ; from that time, however, there can be no doubt that i ! was currently used, not only in Egypt, but also in Ethiopia and Assyria. It would, indeed, be more difficult to accoimt for the fact of such perfect builders as the Egyptians being ignorant of the arch if such were the case ; though, at the same time, it is easy to vniderstand why they shoidd use it so sparingly as they did in their monumental erections. Even in the simplest archi, that formed of only two stones, such as is frequently found in the pja'amids, and over the highest chamber, woodcut No. 157, it will be evident that any weight placed on the apex has a tendency to lower the summit, and press the lower ends of the 192. Aroli of the Cloaca Maxima, Koino. Scale no It. tu 1 in.

JL. 254 ETHIOPIAN AHCHITECTUIIP:. Book V. stones oiitwiii'ds. ^Vherc there was the whole mass of the pyramid to abut a 111 th. I yi mill- .i Aleroe. From iioskins. tioual joint was Only an additional source of weakness. Tliis has been felt by the architects of all ages and in all countries : still the advantage of being able to cover large spaces with small stones or bricks is so great, that many have been Avilling to run the risk ; and all the ingenuity of the Gothic architects of the middle ages was applied to overcoming the difficulty. But even the best of their buildings are unstable frt)m this cause, and require constant care and attention to keep them from falling. The Indian architects have fallen into the other extreme, refusing to use the arch imder any circumstances, and prefen-ing the smallest dimensions and the most crowded interiors, rather than adopt what tliey consider so destructive an exi)odient. The Egyptians seem to have followed a middle course, using arches either in tombs, where the rock formed an immoveable abutment ; or in pyramids and buildings where the mass immensely overjiowered the thnist ; or underground, where the superincimibent earth prevented movement. They seem also to have used flat segmental arches, of brickwork, between the rows of massive architraves which they placed on theii* pillars ; and as all these abutted one another, like the arches of a bridge, except the external ones, which Avere sufficiently supported by the massive walls, the mode of constniction was a soimd one. This is exactly' that which we have re-invented during the last 30 years, in consequence of the introduction of east-iron beams, between which flat segmental arches of brick are throAvn, when we wish to introduce a more solid and fire-])roof constniction than is possible with wood only. In their use of the arch, as in eveiything else, the building science of the Egyptians seems to have been govenied by the soundest principles and the most- perfect knowledge of what was judicious and exl»cdient, and what should be avoided. Many of their smaller edifices have no d(jubt perished from the scarcity of wood forcing the builders to employ luick arches, but they wisel}' avoided the use of these in all their larger monuments — in all, in fact, which they wished should endure to the latest posterity.

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li)4. West View of the Acropolis restored. From Wordswoitlis Allien: BOOK VI. CHAPTER 1. GEEECE. CONTENTS. Historical notice — Pelasgic art — Tomb of Atreus — Other remains — Hellenic Greece — History of the orders — Doi-ic order — The Parthenon — Ionic order — Corinthian order — ( 'ai-yatides — Forms of temples — Mode of lighting — Municipal architecture — Theatres. CHRONOLOGY. DATKS. AlridiV at M}xen;v, from . . . B.C. 1207 to 1104 Kctiini 111' the Heraclida" lo Peloponnese . 1104 olympiads comnieneo 776 Cvpsclida? at ('oriiilh— Building of teiiiplo lit Corinth, from GS.'i to .'isl Selinus founded, and first tcmpk' comnunced G2G Ascendancy of .Kfdna - IJuildinp; of temple . at .Egina, from 508 to 409 Battle of Marathon 490 DATES. Battle of Salamis n.c. 480 Theron at Agrisentuni. Commences great temple 480 Cimon at Athens. Temple of Theseus built 46fl Pericles at Athens. I'arlhcnon finished . 43s Temple of Jupiter at Olynipia finished . 436 I'lopyhea at Athens built, from . . 437 to 432 Selinus destroyed by Carthaginians. . . 410 Krechtheium at Athens finished . . . 409 Jlonument of Lysicrates at Athens. . . 335 Death of Alexander the Great .... 324 Tiu. witliiy n very recent period the histories of (jlreeee iUiclKome have ))een considered as the ancient histories of the world ; and even now, in our universities and ]niblic schools, it is scarcely acknowledged that

256 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book Y I. a more ancient record has heen read on the nionnments of Egypt, and dug out of the bowels oi' the earth in Assyria. It is nevertheless tnic that the deeipheniicnt of the liieroglyphics on the one hand, and the reading of the arrow-headed characters on the otlier, liave disclosed to us two forms of civilisation anterior to that which reappeared in Greece in the 8th century before Christ. Based on those that preceded, it developed itself there with a degree of perfection never before seen, and in its own peculiar department never since sui-passed. ^ Tliese discoveries have been of the utmost importance, not only in correcting our hitherto narrow views of ancient history, but also as exl)laining much that was obscure, or utterly unintelligible, in those histories with which we were more immediatel}^ familiar. We now, for the first time, compi'ehend whence the Greeks obtained their arts and civilisation, and how far the character of these was aifected by the sources from which they were derived. Having ali-eady described the artistic forms of Egyj)t and Assyria, it is not difficidt to discover the origin of almost every idea, and of every architectural feature, that afterwards was found in Greece. To comprehend her arts, it is necessary to bear in mind that (Jreece was inhabited by two distinct and separate races, the one aboriginal, as far as we know, which, for distinction's sake, may be called Telasgic, a race Avhich not Only spread over Greece, but Etruria and Asia Minor, and before the war of Troy was generally the dominant race in all these countries. In Greece their power became extinct with the return of the Heraclidte to the Peloponneso in the 11th centmy B.C. In Etruria they retained their supremacy till dispossessed by the Eomans ; and in Asia they never were, strictly speaking, superseded, though under Grecian iniluencc their civilisation took a form widely dift'erent from what we find in the earlier ages. The other, or Dorian race, may have existed in Greece from the earliest ages, but only superseded the Pelasgi politically about 10 centuries before Christ ; but their civilisation took no new artistic fonn for at least 3 centuries afterwards, at which time what we know as the tmc Grecian form of art first made its appearance. Architecturally these two races may be distinguished, the one as an Ionic, the other as a Doric race. We niay feel sr.re that the Pelasgic lace jirevailed wherever the Ionic order is found ; and the Doric order, in like manner, marks the exact dcgi'ee of prevalence of the other race in the places where it exists. S])arta may be considered as the head-quarters of the Doric, Arcadia of the Ionic races. In Athens they seem to have been nearly equally mixed, and in other states in varying proportions. As in all countries and in all ages down to the present day, the 1 )oric race, which was identical with, or at least closely allied to, the Teutonic, set'Uis to liave been far better adapted for the arts of war and self-government tlian for the softer arts of poetry and i)eace. The Pelasgi, on tlic other hand, as connected with the Celtic or Tartar races, seem to have had a peculiar facility in elaborating beauty, the

Chap. I. I'KLASGIC ART. 257 nicest iiercoi»tiaii of poetic elco-aneo, and the justest appreciation of all that coiislitutes true artistic beauty of form and colour. Tims tlic ])octry of Arcadia was unknown in the nei

258 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VI. of the tomb. The most perfect aud the largest of thoiii now existing is kn(^^^^l as the treasury or toml> of Atreus at Mycena3, draAMi to the usual scales in plan and section in the annexed woodcut. The principal chamber is 48 ft. G in. in diameter, and is, or was when perfect, of the shape of a regular equilateral pointed arch, a form well adapted to the mode of construction, which is that

ClIAl'. I. PELASGIC ART. 5!» these were, it is evident, from tlie luode ef const riictidii, tli;it they eauuot be destroyed by any equable pressure exerted i'nun tlic; extoi'ior. The only danger to be feared is, what is technically called, a li.sinji of the haunches ; and to avoid this it would be necessar\-, wliere larire domes were attempted, to adopt a form more nearly conical than that used at Mycenaa. This might be a less ideasing architectural feature, but it is constructively a far better one than the f(»rm of the radiatimr domes wo generally employ. 1 1 is certainly to be regretted that more of tlu; decorative features of this early style have not been discovered. They differ so entirely from anything else in Greece, and are so jiurely Asiatic in form, that it would be exceedingly curious to be able to restoi-c a complete decoration of any sort. In all the parts hitherto brought to light, an Ioniclike scroll is repeated in every part and over every detail, rather rudely executed, but probably originally heightened by colour. Its counterparts are found in 4ssyria and at Persepolis, but nowhere else in Greece. The Pelasgic races soon learnt to adopt for their doorways the more pleasing curvilinear form, with which they were already familiar from their interiors. The annexed illustration (woodcut No. l!»7) from a gateway at Thoricus, in Attica, serves to show its simplest and earliest form ; and the next, from Assos, in Asia Minor, of a far more modern date, shows the most complicated form it took in ancient times. In this last instance it is merely a discharging arch, and so little fitted for the purpose to which it is applied, that we can only suppose that its adoption arose from a strong lu'edilection in favour of this shape. Another illustration of i'elasgic masonry is found at Delos (woodcut No. 199), consisting of a roof formed by two ai'ch stones, at a certain angle to one another, as in Egypt, and is further interesting as being associated with capitals of pillars formed of the front part of bulls, as in Assyria, pointing again to the intimate connt'xion that existed between Greece and Asia at this early period of her history. In all these instances it does not seem to have been so much want of knowledge that led these early builders to adopt the horizontal in preference to the radiating principle, but a conviction of its greater durability, and also, pei-haps, a certain predilection for an imcienl mode. In the construction of these walls they adhered, as a mere matter of taste, to forms which they must have known to be inferior to othei-s. In the example, for instance, of a wall in the rdopcmnesus (woodcut No. 200), we find the polygonal masoniy of an earlier age actuallv s 2 197. Gateway at Thoricus. (ircece. From Doilwcll b

260 GRECIAN ARCHITECTUJIE. I'OOK VI. placed upon as perfect a specimen, built in regular courses, or what is techniciilly called ashlar work, as any to be found in (Jreece ; and on the other side of the gateway at Assos (woodcut No. 1!)8) there exists a semicircular arch, shown by the dotted line. It is constructed horizontally, and could only have been copied from a radiating arch. _*ji) 198. Gateway at Assos. From Tcxiers Asic Mitieure. I!li). Arch at Dclos. From Stuart's Athens. Their city walls arc chiefly remarkable for the size of the blocks of stone, and for the beauty with which their irregidar joints and courses are fltted into one another. Like most fortifications, they are generally devoid of oniament, the oidy architectural features being the openings. These arc interesting, as showing the stei>s by which a peculiar form of masonry was perfected, which, in after ages, led to important architectural results. On«; of the most ])rimitive of these buildings is a nameless ruin existing near Missnlonghi (woodcut No. 201). In it the sides of the opening are striiight for the whole height, and, though making a very

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ClIAl'. I. 1'KLA8U1C AUT. 261 stable form of opening, it is one to whicli it is extremely difficult to fit doors, or to close by any known means. It is this that led to the next ex})edient of inserting a lintel at a certain height, and making the jambs more perpendicular below, and more sloping above. This method is already exemplified in the tomb of Atreus (woodcut No. 195), and in the gate of the Lions at My cense (woodcut No. 202). It is by no means clear whether the pediments were always filled up with sculpture, as in this instance, or left open. In the walls of a to^vn it probably was always closed, in that of a chamber left open. In the gate at Myoenee the two lions stand against an altar,* shaped like a pillar of a form found in Lycia, in which the round ends of the timbers of the roof are shown as if projecting into the frieze. 200. Wall ill Peloponnesus. From Itlouet's Voyage en Grece. 201, Doorway at Mlssolonghi. 202. Gate of Lions, MycOT.f. 1 It is to be ret^retted that no cast has ever siblc to reason on them, wliilst as fypcs of a been taken of these, the oldest sculptures of style they are the most interesting known to their class in existence. The drawintjs hitherto exist anywheremade of them iue so inexact that it is impos

2tl3. '■'^:'*;:*"' Plan of tbe Acropolis at Athens. CHAPTER II. IT E L L E X T r G K E E (' E. HISTORY OF THE ORDERS. 'I'liK ciilniinatiniz; period of the I'elasgic civilisation of Greece was at the time of the war with Tro^' — the last great military event of this age, and the one which closed the long and intimate connexion of the Pelasgians with their cognate races in Asia. Sixty years later the irniption of the Thessalians, and twenty years after that event the return of the Ileracleidai, closed for ever that chapter in history, and gave rise to the Dorian civilisation, which is the great and true glory of Greece. Four centuries, however, elapsed, which may be truly called the dark ages of Greece, before the new seed bore fniit, at least as far as art is concerned. These ages produced, it is true, the laws of Lycurgus, a characteristic effort of a truly Arian race, conferring on the people who invented them that power of self-government, and cajiability for republican institutions, which gave them such stability at home and such power abroad, but which were as inimical to the softer glories of the fine arts in Sparta as they have proved elsewhere. When, after this long night, art reappeared, it was at Corinth, under the Cypselidie, a race of strongly marked Asiatic tendencies ; I)ut the art had then undergone such a transformation as almost to startle us. It is no longer the elegant and ornate forms of M3'cena;, and the cognate Asiatic art, but the rude, bold proportions of Egyptian art, and with almost more than Egyptian massiveness. The age of the Doric temple at Corinth is not, it is true, satisfactorily detennined ; biit the balance of evidence woiild lead us to believe that it belongs to the age of Cypselus, or about 650 B.C. The pillars are less than 4 diameters in height, and the architrave — the

Thai-. II. IIISTOIJY OK THE OIJDKHS. 263 only \r.\vi of (lie snperstnxctiuc that now remains -is proportionately heavy. It is, indeed, one of the most massive specimens of architecture existing, more so than even its rock-cut prototype at Beni-Hassan, from which it is most indubitably copied. As a work of art, it fails from excess of strenj;-tli, a f;iult common to most of the ell'orts of a rtide peo])lc, ijrnorant of their own resources, and striving, by the expression of i)hysical strength alone, to obtain all the objects of their art. Next in age to this is the temple at iEgina. Its date, too, is unknown, though, judging from the character of its stadptnre, it probably belongs to the middle of the sixth century before Christ. 204. Temple at /Egina restored. No scale. \\c know that Athens had a great temple on the Acropolis, contem[)()rarv with these, and the frusta of its columns still remain, which, after its d(3structiou by the Persians, were built into the walls of the citadel. It is more than probable that all the principal cities of Greece had temjiles commensurate with their dignity before the Persian war. Many of these were destroyed during that struggle : but it also happened then, as in France and England in the 12th and 13th centuries, that the old temples were thought unworthy of the national greatness, and of that feeling of exaltation arising from the successful result of the greatest of their wars, so that almost all those which remained were pulled do^vn or rebuilt. The consequence is, that nearly all the great temples now found in Greece were built in the 40 or 50 years that succeeded the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and Plata^a. The oldest temple of this class is that best knoAvn as the Theseium, or temple of Theseus, at Athens, though by some believed to be more pi-operly that of the god Mars. It eonstitutes a link between the archaic and the perfect age of Grecian art, more ]ierfect than the temple at ^gina or any that preceded it, but falling si mil of the perfection of the Parthenon, its near neighbour both in locality and date. Of all the great temples, the best and most celebrated is the Parthenon, the only octastyle Doric temple in Greece, and in its ovni class undoubtedly the most beautiful building in the world. It is true it

264 CiKKCIAN AKCIIITECTURE. Book VI. has noitlur tlu' ilimensions nor the womliuiis expression of power ami eternity inluMcnt in Ej;yj)tian temples, nor lias it the variety and pootr}' of the Gothic cathedral ; hut for intellectual heaxity, for perfection of proportion, for beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite ]»rinfiples of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unrivalled — the glory of Greece, and the shame of tlie rest of the world. Next in size and in beauty to this was the great hcxastjde temple of .Tu])iter at ()lym])ia. finished two years later than the rarthenon. Its dimensions were nearly the same, but, having only G pillars in front instead of 8, as in the Parthenon, the proportions were different, tliis temple being 95 ft. by 230, the Parthenon 101 ft. by 227. To the same age belongs the cx(iuisite little temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassai (47 ft. by 125), the tcmjile of Minerva at Suniinu, the greater temple at lihamnus, the Propyhvia at Athens, and indeed all that is gi'eatest and most beautiful in the architecture of Greece. The temple of Ceres at Eleusis also was founded and designed at this period, but its execution belongs to a later date. Sicily. Owing, probabl}-, to some local peculiarity, which we have not now the means of explaining, the Dorian colonies of Sicily and Magna Grajcia seem to have possessed, in the days of their prosperity, a gi-eater number of temples, and certainly retain the traces of man^' more, than were or are to be found in any of the great cities of the mother country. The one city of Selinus alone possesses C in two groups, 8 in the citadel, and 15 in the city. Of these the oldest is the central one of the first-named group. Its sculptures, first discovered by Messrs. Angell and Harris, indicate an age only slightly sulisequent to the foundation of the colony, B.C. (33(3, and therefore probably nearly contemporary with the example above mentioned at Corinth. The most modern is the great t)ctastyle tenqde, which seems to have been left unfinished at the time of the destruction of the city by the Carthaginians, B.C. 410. The remaining 4 range between these dates, and therefore form a tolerably i)eifect chronometric series at that time when the arts of Greece itself fail us. The inferiority, however, of provincial art, sis compared with that of Greece itself, prevents us from apjtlying such a test with t(to much confidence to the real history of the art, though it is undoubtedly valuable as a sec(jndary illustration. At Agrigentum there ai'e 3 Doric temples, 2 small hexastyles, whose age may be about 500 to 480 B.C., and one great exceptional example, the largest of all the Grecian temples of the age, being 3(3(J ft. long by 1 73 broad. These gigantic dimensions, however, were beyond the legitimate powers or ])ro])ortions of the order employed; and the architect was consequently forced to adopt expedients which must always have rendered it a clumsy though a magnificent buildino-. Its date is ])ertectly known, as it was commenced l)y Theron, b.c. 480, and left unfinished seventy-five yeai-s afterwards, when the city was destroyed by the Carthaginians.

Chap. II. DOIUC AND IONIC ORDERS. 265 At Syracuse there still exist the niins of a very hoautifnl t('m]»le of this age ; and at Egesta are remains of another in a nmch more perfcet state. I'ajstum, in iMagna Grsecia, boasts of the most magnificent group of temples after that at Agrigcntinn. One is a very beautiful hexastyle, belonging ])rol)ably to the middle of the fifth century b.c, built in a bold and very pure style of Doric architecture, and still retains the greater part of its internal columnar arrangement. The other two are more modein, and far less pure either in plan or in detail, one having nine columns at each end, the central pillar being meant to corresi)ond with an internal range of pillars, supporting the ridge of the roof. The other, though of a regular fomi, is so modified by local peculiarities, so coiTupt in fact, as hardly to deserve being ranked with the beautiful order which it most resembles. Ionic. We have even fewer materials for the history of the Ionic order in Greece than we have for that of the Doric. The recent discoveries in Assyria have proved, beyond a shadow of a doubt, that the Ionic was even more essentially an introduction from Asia than the Doric was from Egypt : the only question is, when it was brought into Greece. ]\Iy owTL impression is, that it existed there in one form or another from the earliest ages, but, owing to its slenderer proportions, and the greater quantity of wood used in its construction, the examples may have perished, so that nothing is now known to exist which can claim even as great an antiquity as the Persian war. The oldest example, probably, was the temple on the Ilissus, now destroyed, dating from about 484 b.c. ; next the little gem of a temple dedicated to Nike Apteros, or the 'Wingless Victory, about 15 j-ears later, in front of the Propyla^a at Athens. The last and most perfect of all the examples of this order is the Erechtheium, on the Acropolis : its date is apparently about 420 b.c, the great epoch of Athenian art. Nowhere did the exquisite taste and skill of the Athenians show themselves to greater advantage than here ; for though every detail of the order may be traced back to Nineveh or Persepolis, all ai'c so purified, so imbued with purely Grecian taste and feeling, that they have become essential parts of a far more beautiful order than ever existed in their native country. The largest, and perhaps the finest, of Grecian Ionic temples, was that built about a century afterwards, at Tegea, in Arcadia — a regular peripteral temple, of considerable dimensions, but whose existence is now knoAvn only from the description of I'ausanias. As in the case, however, of the Doric order, it is not in Greece itself that we find either the greatest number of temples of this order, or those most remarkable for size, but in the colonies in Asia Minor, and more especially in ]onia, whence the order most properly takes its name. That an Ionic order existed in Asia Minor before the Persian wars is quite certain, but all examples perished in that memorable

2M ( JKECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book YT. stnig};!!' ; ami when it ivappeared after it, the order had lost inueh of its jiiirely Asiatie eharaeter, and assumed certain forms and tendencies bi)rrowcd from the simpler and pnrer Doric style. If any temple in the Asiatic Greek colonies escaped destmction in the Persian wais, it was that of Juno at Samos. It is said to have been Imilt by IVdycrates, and appears to have been of the Doric order. The ruins now found there are of the Ionic order, 346 ft. by 189 ft., and wliich must have succeeded the first mentioned. The appaient archaisms in the fomi of tlie bases, itc, whicli have misled anticpiarians, arc merely Eastern forms retained in spitt' of (Jrecian iniluenee. More remarkable even than this was the celebrated temple of Diana at Ephesus. 425 ft. long by 220 ft. wide, consequently covering 93,500 ft., or a larger area than any ancient temple knovm out of Egypt, or any media3val cathedral, except IMilan. which is slightly larger. Even its site, hoM'cver, is now a matter of dispute. Besides these, there was a splendid decastyle temple, dediciated to Ajwllo Didymaius, at Miletus, 105 ft. wide by 302 ft. in leng-th : an octastyle at Sardis, 2(U ft. by 144 ft. ; an cxquisiiely beautiful, though small hexastj'le, at Priene, 122 ft. by G4 ft. ; and another at Teos, besides smaller examples elsewhere, and many which have no doubt perished. Corinthian. The Corinthian order is as essentially boiTowed from the bellshaped capitals of Egypt, as the Doric is from their oldest jiillars. Like everything they touched, the CJreeks soon rendered it their own, by the freedom and elegance with which they treated it. The acanthusleaf with which they adorned it is essentially Grecian, and we must suppose that it had been used by them as an ornament, either in their metal or wood work, long before they ado])ted it in stone as an archi tectural feature. As in everything else, however, the Greeks could not help betraying in this also the Asiatic origin of their art, and the Egyptian order AWth them was soon Avedded to the Ionic, whose volutes became an essential, thcmgh subdued ])ai't of this order. It is in fact a composite order, made up of the bell-shaped capitals of the Egy}>tians and the sj)ii-al of the Assyrians, and adopted by the Greeks at a time when national distinctions were rapidl}' disapiicaring, and when true and severer art was giving ])lace to love of variety. At that time also mere ornament and caning were supplanting the piner class of fonn and the higher aspirations of sculpture with which the Greeks oniamented their temples in their best days. In Greece the order does not appear to have been introduced, or at lea.st generally used, before the age of Alexander the Great; the oldest authentic example, and also one of the most beautiful, being the ('horagic Monument of Lysicrates (b.c. 335), which, notwithstanding the smalln&ss of its dimensions, is one of the most beautiful woiks of art of the merely ornamental class to be found in any part of the world. A sirai)ler example, but by no means so beautiful, is that (»f the small j)orticos of the building commonly but improperly called the

Cnw. 11. CUIUNTHIAN AND \)0\l\C UHDERS. 2(;7 'J\)\vor of tlie AVinils at Athens. The largest cxaiiiph^ in CJreecc of th(> Corinthian order is the temple of Jupiter Olymjiius at Athens. This, however, may almost be called a IJouian building, thongh on Grecian .soil — having been commenced in its present form under Antiochns Epiphanes, in the 2nd eentiny B.C., by the Eoman architect Cossntius, and only finished by Hadrian, to whom probably we may ascribe the greatest part of what now remains. Its dimensions are 171 ft. by ;>54 ft., or nearly those of the interior of the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnac ; and from the number of its columns, their size and their beauty, it may be considered as the most beautiful Corinthian temple of the ancient world. Judging, however, from some fragments found among the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, it appears that the Corinthian order was introduced there before we find any trace of it in Greece Proper. Indeed, d priori we might expect that its introduction into Greece was a pai-t of that reaction which the elegant and luxurious Asiatics exercised on the severei- and more manly inhabitants of European Greece, and which was in fact the main cause of their subjection, first to the Macedonians, and finally beneath the iron yoke of Kome. As used by the Asiatics, it seems to have arisen from the introduction of the bell-shaped capital of the Egyptians, to which they applied the acanthus leaf, sometimes in conjunction with the honeysuckle ornament of the time, as in woodcut No. 205, and on other and later occasions together with the volutes of the same order, the latter combination being the one Avhich ultimately pi'evailed, and became the typical form of the Corinthian capital; Doric Order. The Doric was the order which the Greeks especially loved and cultivated so as to make it most exclusively their own ; and, as used in the rarthenon, it certainly is as complete and as jierfect an architectural feature as any style can boast of. ^\hen first introduced from Egypt, it, as befoi-e stated, partook of even moi-e than Egyptian solidity, but by degrees became attenuated to the weak and lean form of the Koman order of the same name. Woodcut No. 20() illustrates the three stagt's of progress from the oldest example at Corinth to the order as used in the time of I'hilip at Delos, the intermediate being the culminating point in the age of Pericles : the first is 4-47 diameters in height, the next 6-025, the last 7'015 ; and if the table were filled up with all the other examples, the gTadual attenuation of the shaft would very nearly give the relative date of the example. This fact is in itself sufficient to refute the idea of the pillar being copied from a 2Cj. Aiaiciit Ciiviiilhiau C;ii);Uil. Froni IJranclii(iM\

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268 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VI. ^^ i 206. Temple at Dclos. I'arthcnoii at Athens. Temple at Corinth. wooden post, as in that ease it would have been slenderer at first, and would giadually have departed from the wooden form as the style advanced. Tliis is the ease in all primitive styles. With the Doric order the contrar)' is the case. The earliei- the example the more unlike it is to an}- wooden orip;iiial. As the masons advanced in skill and power over their stone material, it came more and more to resemble posts or pillars of wood. The fact apjiears to be, that either in Egypt or in early Greece the pillar was originally a pier of brickwork, or of itd)ble masoniy, sujiporting a wooden n>of, of which the architraves, the trigly])hs, and the various ])arts of tlic cornice, all bore traces down to the later period. Even as ordinarily reiuesented, or as copied in this country, there is a degree of solidity combined with elegance in this oixler, and an exquisite ])ro]ioi-tion of the parts to one another, and to the work they htive to peiform, that command the admiration of every person of taste ; but, as used in Greece, its beauty was very much enhanced by a

Chap. TI. DUIUC ORDER. 269 number of refinements, whose existence was not suspected till lately, and oven now cannot be detected but by tlie most practised eye. The colnnuis were at first assumed to be bounded by straight lines. It is now fomid that they have an entasis, or convex profile, in the Farthenon to the extent of -545 of the whole height, and are bounded by a very delicate hyperbolic curve ; it is true this can hardly be detected by the eye in ordinary positions, but the want of it gives that rigidity and poverty to the column which is observable in modern examples.' In like manner, the architrave in all temples was carried upwards, so as to form a very flat arch, just suificient to correct the optical delusion arising from the interference of the sloping lines of the pediment. This, I believe, was common to all temples, but in the Parthenon the curve was applied to the sides also, though from what motive it is not so easy to detect. Another refinement was making all the columns slope slightly inwards, so as to give an idea of strength and support to the whole. Add to this, that all the cim^ed lines used were either hyperbolas or parabolas. With one exception only, no circular line was employed, nor even an ellipse. Every part of the temple was also arranged with the most unbounded care and accuracy, and every detail of the masonry was earned out with a precision and beauty of execution which is almost unrivalled, and it ma}" be added tliat the material of the whole was the purest and best white marble. All these delicate adjustments, this exquisite finish and attention to even the smallest details, are well bestowed on a design in itself simjde, beautiful, and appropriate. The}" combine to render this order, as found in the best Greek temples, as nearly faultless as any work of art can possibly be, and such as we may dwell upon with the most unmixed and unvarying satisfaction. To understand, however, the Doric order, we must not regard it as a merely masonic form. Sculpture was always used, or intended to be used, with it. The metopes between the triglyphs, the pediments of the porticos, and the acroteria or pedestals on the roof, are all unmeaning and useless imless filled or surmounted with sculptured figures. Sculpture is, indeed, as essential a part of this order as the acanthus-leaves and ornaments of the cornice are to the capitals and entablature of the Corinthian order ; and without it, or without its place being supplied by painting, we are merely looking at the dead The Purtlieiion. Scale 50 It. to 1 in. ' These facts have all been fully ekuiilated by Mr. Penrose in his beautiful work containing the results of his researches on the I'artlit'uon and other t( mples of Greece, published by the Dilett-uiti Society.

270 GllECIAX AIICHITECTURE. Book VI. skeleton, the mere frtimework of the order, without the flesh and bk)od tluit guve it life and junpose. It is Avhen all these parts arc combined together, as in the j.oitieo of the I'ai-thenon (woodcut No. 207), that we can understand this order in all its perfection ; for though each part was beautiful in itself, their full value can be ajipreciated only as parts of a great whole. Another essential part of the order, too often overlooked, is the colour, which wa« as integral a part of it as its form. Till very lately, it was denied that Greek temples w^ere, or could be, painted : the unmistakeable remains of it, however, that have been discovered in almost all temples, and tlie gre^ator knowledge of the value and use of colour which now prevails, have altered the public opinion verymuch on the matter, and most people admit that some colour was used, though few are agreed as to the extent to which it was earned. It cannot now be questioned that colour was xised even'Avhere internally, and on every object. Externally too it is generally admitted that the scidpture was painted and relieved by strongly coloured backgiounds ; the lacunaria, or recesses of the roof, were also cei'tainly painted, and all the architectural mouldings, which at a later period wore carved in relief, have been found to retain traces of their painted ornaments. It is disputed whether the echinus or cui-^'ed moulding of the capital was so ornamented. I think it undoubtedly was ; and the walls of the cells were also coloured throughout and covered with paintin

ClIAP. II. IONIC OllDKll. toiuplo of Nike Aptcros is brilliantly ornamented in the same style as those of the Do'/ic order. It also happened that those details and ornaments wliich were only painted in the Doric, are carved in the Junie order, and remain therefore visible to the present day, which gives to this order a completeness in onr eyes which the other cannot boast of. Add to this a certain degree of Asiatic elegance and grace. All this when pnt together makes np a singularly pleasing architectnral object. But notwithstanding these advantages the Doric order will probably always be admitted to be superior, as belonging to a higher class of art, and because all its forms and details are better and more adapted to their purpose than these are. The })rincipal characteristic of the Ionic order is the Pelasgic or Asiatic spiral, here called a volute, which, notwithstanding its elegance, forms at best but an awkward capital. The Assyrian honeysuckle below this, carved as it is with the exquisite feeling and taste which a Greek only knew how to impart to such an object, forms as elegant an architectural detail as is anywhere to be found ; and wliether used as the necking of a column, or on the cro waring member of a cornice, or on other parts connected with the order, is everywhere the most beautiful ornament connected with it. Comparing this order with that at Persepolis (woodcut No. 1-10), the onl}^ truly Aijiatic protot;>^e wo have of it, we see how much the Doric feeling of the Greeks had done to sober it down, by abbreviating the capital and omitting the greater part of the base. This process was carried much farther when the order was used in c(mjunctit»n with the Doric, as in the Propyhca, than when used by itself, as in the Erechtheinm; still in every case all the parts found in the Asiatic style ai'e mum "jDuuuuuuuyii !i 208. Ionic order of Krcchtheium at Athens.

272 G11P]CIAN AKLlllTECTUKE. Book VI. found in tlic Greek. The same form and feelings pen^ado both ; and, excejit in beanty of execution and detail, it is not quite clear how far even the (Jreek order is an improvement on the Eastern one. 1'hc rersepolitan base is certainly the more beautiful of the two ; so are many parts of the capital. The perfection of the whole, however, depends on the mode in 1 ^ II ^ ^ '@ II which it was employed ; and it is perfectly evident that the Persian order could not ])e combined with the Doric, nor applied with nmch prol»riety as an external order, which was the essential use of all the Grecian forms of l)illars. NotM'ithstanding the amount of car^•ing which the Ionic order displays, there can be little doubt but Ihat it was also ornamented with colour to a considerable extent, but probably in a different manner from the Doric. My o-wTi impression is, that the carved ]iarts were gilt, or picked out with gold, relieved by coloured grounds, varied according to the situation in which they Avere found. The existing remains ]>rove that colouis were used in juxtaposition to relieve and heighten the architectui-al effect of the cars'ed oniaments of this order. In the Ionic temples at Athens the same exquisite masonry was used as in the Doric; the same mathematical precision and care is bestowed on the entasis of the columns, the drawing of the volutes, and the execution of even the minutest details ; and much of its beauty and effect are no doubt owing 209. Order of the Cliuragic Muminiciit of L.vi>icrales. to tliis circumstance, which we miss so painfully in nearly all modem examjiles.

Chap. II. COHINTHIAN OKDEl?. 273 COKlNl'lIIAN. As l)cfovo mentioned, the Corintliian order was only introduced into Greece in the decline of art, and never rose during the purely Grecian ago to the dignity of a temple order. It most pioLably, however, was used in the more ornate s})ecimens of domestic architecture, and in smaller works of art, long before any of those examples of it were executed which we now lind in (ireece. The most typical specimen we now know is that of the Choragic Monmxient of Lysicrates (woodcut No. 209), which, notwithstanding all its elegance of detail and execution, can hardly be pronounced to be perfect, the Eg3^)tian and Asiatic features being onlj^ very indifferently united tcj one another. The foliaged part is rich and full, but is not carried up into the upper or Ionic portion, which is in comparison lean and poor ; and though separately the two parts are irreproachable, it was left to the Romans so to blend the two together as to make a perfectly satisfactory whole out of them. In this example, as now J I I III! II II' I I existing, the junction of the cohimn with the capital is left a })lain sinking, and so it is generally copied in modern times ; but there can be little doubt that this Avas originally filled by a bronze wreath, which was probably gilt. Accordingly this is so represented in the woodcut as being essential to the completion of the order. The base and shaft have, like the upper part of the capital, more Ionic feeling in them than the order was afterwards allowed to retain ; and altogether it is, as here practised, far more elegant, though less complete, than the IJoman form wliich su])erseded it. The other Athenian example, that of the Tower of the Winds (woodcut No. 210), is remarkable as being almixst purely Egyptian in its types, Avith no Ionic admixture. The columns have no bases, the ca])itals no volutes, and the water-leaf clings as closely to the bell as it does in the Egyptian exami)les. The result nn ^ i^ <> '^ ^ ^n 210. Older of the Tower of the Winds, Atluns.

274 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. ]$00K VI. altogether wants richness, and, tliough appropriate on so small a scale, would hardly he })loasin]e of Jupitur Olynipins difters in no essential part from the Eonuin older, exei'})t that the comers of the abacus are not cut oif ; and that, being executed in Athens, there is a degree of taste and art disjdayed in its execution which we do not find in any Ifoman exani])les. It strictly s]>ealviiig. however, belongs to that school, and should be enumerated with tlicm, and not as a Gieeian example. Caryatides. It has been already explained that the Kgvptians never used caryatide figures, jiropeily so called, to su}ti)ort tlie entablatures of theii' arehitectixre, their figures being always attached to the front of the columns or piers, which were the real l)earing mass. At l*erse])olis, and elsewhere in the East, we find figures everywhere employed supporting the throne or the platfoiin of the palaces of the kings ; not, indeed, on their heads, as the Greeks used them, but rather in their uidifted hands. The name, however, as well as their being only used in conjunction with the Ionic order ;nid Avith Ionic details, all })ointtoan Asiatic origin for this very questionable form of art. As used in the little ]iortico attached to the Erechtheium, these figures 211. Caryalidc' Kiifurt^ from the KRciiiii

CllAl-. 11. FORMS L)F TEMI'LICS. 275 213. ToUuiiuiR'S III Atrns'entuni. human figures to Nupjiort a coraico is unpardonable, unless it is done as a mere secondary adjunct to a building. In the Ercchtheium it is a little too prominent for this, thcjugh used with as much discretion as was perhaps ])()ssiblc under the circumstances. Another example of the sort is shown in woodcut Mo. 212, which, by employing a taller cap, avoids some of the objections to the other ; but the figure itself, on the other hand, is less architectural, and so errs on the other side. Another form of this class of suppuit is that of the giants or Telamones, instances of which are found supporting the roof of the great temple at Agrigentum, and in the baths of the semi-Greek city of Pompeii. As they do not actually bear the entablature, but only seem to relieve the masonry behind them, their employment is less objectionable than that of the female figure above described ; but even they hardly fulfil the conditions of true art, and their place might be bettor filled by some more strictly architectural feature. Forms of Temples. The arrangements of Grecian D(_)ric temples show almost less variety than the forms of the pillars, and no materials exist for tracing their gradual development in an historical point of view. The temples at Corinth, and the oldest at Selinus, are both perfect examples of the liexastylc arrangement to which the Greeks adhered in all ages ; and though there can be little doul)t that the pei'ipteral arrangement, as well as the order itself, was borrowed from Egypt, it still was so much modified before it appeared in Greece, that it would be intei'esting, if it could be done, to trace the steps of the change. In an architectural point of view this is by no moans difficult. The simplest Greek temples were mere cells, or small scpiare a})artments, suited to contain an image — the front being what is technically called distyle in antis, or with 2 pillars between aidce, or square i)ilaster-like piers tenninating the side walls. Hence the inlerior enclosure of Grecian temples — the temple itself as op})Osed to the peristyle or system of external columns — is called the cell, however large and splendid it may be. The next change was to separate the interior into a cell and porch by a wall with a large doorway in it, as in the small temple at Ehamnus (woodcut Ko. 21-t), where the opening however can scarcely be called a doorway, as it extends to the roof. A third change was to put a porch of 4 pillars in front of the last arrangement, or, as appears to have been more usual, to bring forwai'd the screen to the position of the pillars as in the last example, and to place the 4 jullars T 2

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276 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VI. in front of this. Xone of these plans admitted of a poristylc, or pillars on the flanks. To obtain this it was necessary to increase the numlier of pillars of the portico to G, or, as it is termed, to make it hexastyle, the 2 outer pillars being the first of a range of 13 or If) cohimns, extended along each side of the temple. Tlic cell in this arrangement Ava.s a complete temple in itself — distyle in antis, n\ost frequently made so at both ends, and the whole enclosed in its onveloiio of columns, as in woodcut No. 215. Sometimes the cell was tetrastyle or with 4 pillars in front. In this foi-m the Greek temple may be said to be complete, verj' few exceptions occurring to the rule, though the Parthenon itself is one of these few. It hua a hexastyle portico at each 214. Small Temple at iihamniis. end of the Cell ; bcyoud this is an octastyle portico at each end, and 17 columns on eacli flank. The great temple at Sclinus is also octastyle, but it is neither so simple nor so beautiful in its arrangement ; and, from the decline r»r«r-*-Tr«]] 1 ' ' 1 ft * * 1 » • • • \ ^•'\l :Tt1: W ft ff 215. Plan of Temple of Apollo at Bassa-. Scale 100 ft. to I in. 216. I'lan of rarlbciion at Athens. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. 217. rian of Great Temple at Agrigentum. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.

CiiAi'. II. MODIO OF LIGHTING TEMPLES. 277 of stylo in the art wlieii it was built, is altogether a very inferior example. Another great exception is the great temple at Agrigentinn (woodcut Ko. 21 ii), where the architect attempted an order on so gigantic a scale as to he unable to constnict the j^illars with their architi'aves standing free. The interstices of the columns are theiefore built up witli walls pierced with windows, and altogether the architecture is so bad, that even its colossal dimensions must have failed to render it at any time a pleasing

278 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VI. was not introduced through the side walls, nor could be in Ruflficicnt quantities tlirougli the doorways, it is only from the roof that it t-ould be admitted. At the same time it coiild not have been by a large horizontal opening in the roof, as has been suggested, as that would have admitted the rain and snow as well as the light ; and the only alternative seems to bo one I suggested some years ago — of a clerestory,' similar internally to that found in all the great Egyptian temples,* but externally recpiiring such a change of arrangement as was necessary to adapt it to a sloping instead of a flat roof. This seems to have been effected by countersinking it into the roof, so as to make it in fact 8 ridges in those parts where the light was admitted, though the regular slope of the roof was retained between these openings, so that neither the ridge nor the continuity of the lines of the roof was interfered with. This would effect .,-^,,. all that was required, and in the most beautiful niamiM', besides that it agrees with all the remains of Greek temples that now exist, as well as with all the descriptions that have been handed dowoi to us from . antiquity. This arrangement will be understood from the section of the Parthenon (woodcut No. 218), restored in accordance with the above explanation, which agrees perfectly with all 218. Section of the rartliciion. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. 219. Part Section, part Elevation, of Great Temple at Agrigeutum. Scale 5U fu to i in. ' For full (lctail.«; of this see ' True Principles of Beauty in Art,' p. 385 et seq. * See Woodcuts Nos. 108, 170, 172.

CiiAr. II. MODE OF LTGirriN(i 'I'KMPLES. 279 that ivmains mi the spot, as well as with all the accounts we have of that tvlcbiated temple. The same .system applies even more easily to the great hexastylo at Pjestimi, ami to the beautiful little temple of Apollo at IJassai, in riiioalia (Avoodeut No. 215), and indeed to all re_i;-n 1 a r Greek temples; and Avliat is a more important point in the examination of this theory, it applies equally to the exceptional ones. The side aisles, for instance, of the great temple at Agrigentum were, as before mentioned, lighted by side windows; the central one coidd only be lighted irom the roof, and it is easy to see how this could be ott'ected by introducing it between the telamones, as shown in the woodcut No. 21i». Another exceptional temple is that at Elcusis, which we know to have had windows and shiitters above, used in admitting or excluding the light during the celebration of the mysteries. The arrangements of this temple lend themselves admirably to this mode of inti-oducing light, as shown in the plan and section annexed (Nos, 220 and 221). The great temple of Jupiter Olympius (Avoodcut No. 222) was apparently lighted according to another system, owing probably to its immense height, and other peculiarities of con.struction. The light seems to have been introduced into what may be considered a C(mrt, or hypoethnim, in front of the cell, which was lighted throuo-h its inner wall. This seems to have been the temple mentioned by Vitruvius,' whose description has given rise to such confusion on this subject. It is the only one to Avhich his words apply, or to which it is possible to adapt sucli a mode of lighting as he describes. 220. Plan of Tcniple of Ceres at Eleusis. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. 221. Section of 'I'emplc of Ceres at Kleusis. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. ' Vitruvius, lili. i. cli.

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280 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VI. •122. n o !^ W The Ionic temples of Asia are all too much ruined lu enable lus to say exactly in what manner, and to what extent, this mode of ligliting was applied to them, though I have OOOOOOOSl® no doubt that the mode was very simiO O O O O O O ffl H a 1^1* in all its main featuies. The little temple of Nike Apteros, and the temple on the Ilissus, were both too small to require any complicated arraiigcincnt of the sort, and the Ereclilliciuiii was lighted by windows which still remain at the west end, so that we can hardly feel sure that the same expedient was not adopted to at least some extent in the Asiatic examl)les. The latter, however, is almost the only instance of windows in any European Greek temple, the only other exam]dc being in the A'ery excepticmal temple at Agi-igentum. It is valuable, besides, as showing how little the Greeks were bound by mles, or by any fancied laws of synimetiy. As is sliown in the i)l;in, elevation, and view (woinlcuts Nds. 22:5, 224, 225), the Erechtheium consisted, properly speaking, of •) temples gi-ouped together ; and it is astonishing what pains the architect took to prevent their being mistaken for one. The porticos of 2 of them are on different levels, and the third or caryatide jxircli is of a different height and different style. Every one of these features is jierfectly symmetrical in itself, and the grouj) is beautifully l)alanced and arranged; aiul vet no Gothic architect in his wildest moments coidd have conceived rian of Temple of Ju]iitcr Olympius at Athens. Scale iOU ft. to 1 in. 'J23. I'l;in of Krcclitlieium. Sciik- Km ft. to I in. 224. .Section of Kreclitheium. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. aiiytbing moie jjicturesfpiely irregular than the whole becomes. Indeed there can be no greater mistake than to suppose that (ireek architecture was fettered b}^ any fixed laws of formal symmetry : each detail, every feature, every object, such as a hall or ttMnjdc, which could be considered as one complete and separate whole, was perfectly

ClIAl'. II. MUNICIPAL AHCIIITECTUIIE. 2Sl ■^25. View of Kiechilieiuiii. symmetrical and regular ; but no two Lnildings — no two apartments— if f(jr different purposes, were made to look like one. On the contrary, it is quite curious to observe what pains they took to arrange their buildings so as to produce variety and contrast, instead of formality or singleness of effect. Temples, Avhen near one another, were never placed parallel, nor were even their propylasa and adjuncts ever so arranged as t(j be seen at once or in one line. The Egyptians, as before remarked, had the same feeling, but carried it into even the details of the same building, which the Greeks did not. In this, indeed, as in almost eveiy other artistic mode of expression, they seem to have hit exactly the happy medium, so as to produce the greatest harmony with the greatest variety, and to satisfy the minutest scrutiny and the most lefined taste, while their buildings i)roduced an immediate and striking effect on even the most careless and casual beholders. Municipal Architecture. Very little now remains of all the various classes of municipal and domestic buildings which once must have covered the land of Greece, and tVom what we know of the ex(pnsite feeling for art that ])e7-va(li"(l that people, were certainl}' not less beautiftd, though more ejilu'iuenil, than the sacred buildings whose ruins still remain to us. There are, however, two buildings in Athens which, though small, give us most exalted ideas of their taste in such matters. 'J'hc liist, already alluded to, usuallj^ known as tlie Tower of the \\'iuds, is a j)laiu octagonal building about 45 ft. in height by 24 in width, ornamented by 2 Miiall pnichcs of 2 [lillars cacli, of the Coilnthian order. wIki.sc

282 GT^ECIAN Alton ITECTUT^E. 15r.oK VI. capitals are ro|ircsente(I in woodcut No. 210. Its roof, like the rest of the Imihliii;:;. is of white iiiarlde, and of simple hut very elegant design, and below this is a frieze of 8 large figures, s^Tiibolical of the 8 winds, from Avhich the tower takes its name, they in fact l)eing the princi])al objects and ornaments of the building, the most important use of which appears to have been to contain a clepsydra or water-clock. The other building, though smaller, is still more beautiful. It is known a.s the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, and consists of a square bfise 12 ft. high by 9 ft. wide, on which stands a circular temple adorned by G Corinthian columns, Avhich, with their entablature, and the roof and pedestal they support, make up 22 ft. more, so that the whole height of the monument is only 34 ft. Notwithstanding these insignificant dimensions, the beauty of its cobunns (woodcut No. 209) and of their entablature, above all, the beauty of the roof, and of the finial ornamont designed to comjilete the building, which is unrivalled for elegance even in Greek art, together make up a composition so perfect that nt) thing in any other style or age can be said to surpass it. If it is a fair index of the art that was lavished on the smaller objects, the temples hardly give a just idea of all that have perished. 2. Q f^ 226. Choragic Monuninnt of Lysicrates. No scale. Theatres. In extreme contrast with the buildings last described, which were among the sniallcst, came the theatres, which were the largest of the monuments the Greeks seem ever to have attempted. The annexed plan of one at Dramyssus, the ancient Dodona, will give an idea of their forms and aiTangemcnts. Its dimensions may bo said to be gigantic, being 443 ft. across; but even this, though perhaps the largest in Greece, is far sur])aissed by many in Asia Minor. \\ hat remains of it, however, is merely the auditorium, and consists only of ranges of seats an-anged in a semicircle, but without architectural ornament. In all the examples in Europe, the proscenium, which was the only part architecturally ornamented, h;us perished, so that, till we can restore this with something like ceiiainty, the theatres hardly come within the chuss of architecture as a fine art. In Asia Minor some of the theatres have their proscenia adorned with niches and coluiinis, and friezes of great richness, but all these

Chap. H. THEATRES— TOMUS. 283 227. Plan of Theatre at Dramj'ssus. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. belong to the Eoman period ; and though probably copies of the mode in which the Greeks ornamented theirs, are so coriixpt in style as to prevent their being used with safety in attempting to restore the earlier examples. Many circumstances would indeed induce us to believe that the proscenia of the earlier theatres may have been of wood or bronze, or both combined, and heightened by painting and carving to a great degree of richness. This, though appropriate and consonant with the origin and history of the drama, would be fetal to the expectation of anything being found to illustrate its earliest forms. Tombs. Like the other Indo-Germanic races, the Greeks never were tombbuilders, and n(jthing of any importance of this class is found in Greece, except the tombs of the early Pelasgic races, which were cither tumuli or treasuries, as they are popularly called. There are, it is true, some headstones and small pillars of great beauty, but they are nioni)lithic, and belong rather to the department of sculpture than of architecture. In Asia Minor there are some important tombs, some built and others cut in the rock. Some of the latter have been described before in speaking of the tombs of the Lyeians. The liuilt examples which remain almost all belong to the lioman pei'iod, though the must magnificent mausoleiuu of the ancient world, in the eyes of the Greeks, was that which the Queen Artemisia erected at Halicarnassus to the

284 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Rook VI. Tnomory of her ImshaiKl, Munsolns, which gave its name to all sul).seqiU'iif exfimj)k's of it.s cliusx. It ))eloii

CiiAP. I. ROMAN ARCIIITECTUllE. 285 BOOK Vll. ROMAN AlUnilTECTlJRE. CHAPTER I. ETEURIA. CONTENTS. Historical notice — Temples — Rock-cut tombs — Tombs at Castel d'Asso — Tumuli. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. Migration from Asia Minor about 12tli cent. u.c. Toml) of Porsenna about u.c. 500 Etiuiia becomes subject to Rome „ 300 ( )iiii .subject again carries us back to a vcrj' early period — that of the first introduction of art into Italy, fur tlie traces of which it is necessary to direct our attention to Etruria. In describing the remains found in this country we shall come to nothing very remarkable for its bearing upon merely architectural questions. The study of the monuments of Etruria derives the greater part of its interest fi-om its historical importance. In this point of view there are perhaps few parts of the world whose remains of art are more instructive than those of Etruria. ^Vithout the lessons which we learn from them, the architectural history of Rome is an unintelligible maze ; and the connection between the arts of Greece and Italy, from the earliest time, equally inexplicable. Without attempting to enter into the many controversies that have of late years been raised with regard to the origin and early history of the Etruscans,' it will be necessary to state thus much :■ — They were an Asiatic people who 12 or 13 centuries before the Christian era emigrated from Lydia, driven from their home either by the pressure of a long famine or by the rising power of some neighbouring nation, most probably that of the Assyrians. lianded in Italy, they dispossessed of some of their cities the I^mbrians, a people of similar origin to themselves, and settled themselves between the valleys of ' Tliese questions are discussed at considerable length in tlie ' True rrincijiles of Beauty in Art,' [>. 42G et seqq.

286 ETRaSCAN ARCH1TP]CTURE. Book VII. the Tiber and tlie Anio. In tlii.s foi-tile district tlicy foianded 12 cities, and estaljlislied a federal iiniun of 12 states, which is the pecnliar institution of the race. Here they appear to have flourished for 7 or 8 centuries, receiving the expatriated Trojans and other similar accessions from their native shores, and l\ce])ino' ii]i a ccjnstant communication of commerce and art witli the cognate Pelasgic races of Greece and other parts. When Home was first founded, her kings, laws, and institutions were Etniscan, and conse({ucntly of Asiatic origin, though the mass of the inhahifants wei'ti prohahly of the old Italian stock. About 5 centuries Ijcfore Christ the Komans threw off the Etruscan yoke, and established the peculiar municipal institutions of the Indo-Germanic races. Eventually, after a contest of 2 centuries' duration, they conquered in succession the several states of the then old and decrepit Union, and based their colossal empire on the iiiins of the parent nation of Etruria. Until the very latest time, however, l\onie retained, both in her institutions and her arts, many peculiarities derived from her original rulers ; and it is only by studying what remains of the older race that we can understand either the origin or meaning of those pecidiar features. The origin of Etruscan art is beyond all doubt Asiatic, and its original seat was some part of the countries between the Tigris and the western coast of Asia Minor. The same art, and from the same source, prevailed in Greece under the Pelasgi. In that country, as has been already explained, it ceased to exist as a separate style of art in very early times. It was there amalgamated with Egyptian and iVssyrian foiTUs under the Dorians during the 4 or 5 centuries that elapsed between the extinction of the pure Pelasgic style and the rise of tnie Hellenic art. The united style thus slowly ripened into that noble and chastened art which we have described in the last chapter. In Etruria the old Asiatic style enjoyed no such advantages. It there was left without a rival or associate, to luxui-iate in its own natural wildn ess ; but it remained an exotic unsuitcd to the climate. It never blended itself with the art of the people among whom it was planted. Perhaps there was nothing with which it coidd blend itself. It thus bore no such fruit as in Greece, and could not maintain itself after the peo}»le which had introduced it had succumbed beneath the superior energy of their Italian conquerors. Temples. As might bo expected of a people of Asiatic origin, the Etruscans had no tem})les worthy of the name. At least no remains of any are now to be found, and those we read of were small, though probably highly oniamented, wooden fiibrics, which of course perished early. On the other hand, the Etruscans were an cs.sentially tomb-building race. Their religion took Aciy much the character of ancestral worshi]), and it was this particular feature of it which left so strong an imjinss on the mythology of Greece and Kome. It was not an idolatry,

ClIAl". I. TEMPLES. 287 iiov li;ul it a di.stinct and privileged priesthood ; consequently it was devoid of all tendency to the feelings Avhich tiiid tluir utterance in architectural splendour. We know from Vitruvius that there were two classes of temples in Etruria : the first circular, like their tombs, and dedicated to one god or demigod ; the other rectangular, with 3 cells sacn^d to 3 deities. The ap]H'arance and arrangement of the rectangular temples is scarcely moic than a nu^re an titpiarian question. The restoration of the elevation from the description in Vitruvius is by no means easy or certain. My own belief is that it resembled that given in the annexed woodcut (No. 228). but it is not worth while here to enter into all the reasons 229. Plan and Secliuii uf ;\n Ktrustaii TcniiiU'. for this impression, which I have given elsewhere.' In fact, these temples, as architectural objects, are so insignificant as hardly to deserve much consideration. The restoreel ground-plan explains their general arrangements, as commonly admitted by those who have studied the subject. The original Etmscan circidar temple I believe to have been a mere circular cell with a porch. The Komans surrounded it with a peristyle, which probably did not (jxist in the original style. They magnified it afterwards into the most characteristic and splendid of all their temples, the rantheon, Avhose portico is Etruscan in arrangement and design, and whose cell still more distinctly belongs to that style. The temple of Capitoline Jupiter was in all respects an Etruscan liuilding ; and most of the other temples of the Romans, though affecting a peristylar form, returned to the arrangements whicli luid been adopted in the first instance from their neighbours and oi-iginal nders. There can be little doubt that the simpler Koman tem])les of circular form are derived from Etruscan origiuMls. Tt would tlicrefore be of great importance if we were able tt) illustrate the later buildings from existing remains of the older ; but the fact is that such deductions as we may draw from the copies are our only source of information respecting the originals. We know little of any of the civil buildings with Avliich tlie cities I'luo rriiiciiiks ul' Jkauty in Art, ji. -I4tj cl saj'j.

288 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. of Etniria were adoniod, oxcopt tlio remains of their theatres and aniiihitheatres. The form uf the hitter wa.s essentially Etrnsean, and was adopted by the Komans, with whom it became their most characteristic and grandest architectural object. Of the amphitheatres of ancient Etrni-ia only one now remains in so perfect a state a.s to enable Tis to judge of their fonus. It is that at Sutri, which, however, being entirely cut in the rock, neither aftords the means of judging of the mode of construction, nor enables us to determine the age. The general dimensions are 295 ft. in its greatest length, by 265 in breadth, and consequently much nearer a circle than those of the Eomans usually were ; but in other respects the ai'rangemcnts are such as were usually found in after times. Besides these we have numerous worlcs of utility, Imt these belong more strictly to engineering than to architectural science. The city walls of the Etruscans sui"p;i.ss those of any other ancient nation in extent and beauty of workmanship. Their works of diainagc and their bridges, as well as those of the kindred Telasgians in Greece, still remain monuments of their industrial science and skill, which their successors never suiiiassed. On the Avhole perhaps avc are justified in asserting that the Etruscans Avere not an architectural people, and had no temples or palaces worthy of attention. At all events it is certain that nothing of the sort is now to be found even in niins, and, W"re it not that the study of Etniscan art is a necessary introduction to that of Ifomc, it would hardly be wf)rth while to try to gather together and to illustrate the few fragments and notices of it that remain. Tombs. The tombs now found of the Etruscans may be divided into two cla.sses : — First, those cut in the rock, and resembling dwelling-houses ; secondly, the circular tumuli, which latter are by far the most numerous and important class. Each of these may be again STibdivided into two kinds. The rockcut tombs include, firstly, those with only a facade on the face of the rock, and a sepulchral chamber within ; secondly, those cut quite out of the rock, and standing free all rouiid. To this class probaljly once belonged an innncnsc number of tombs built in the ordinary way; but all these have totally disappeared, and consc(p;ently the class, as now under consideration, consists entirely of excavated examples. The second class m.ay be divided into those tumuli erected over

CiiAr. I. TOMBS. 28!i of the tumuli, which moreover are found all over Euro|)e and Asia, and appeal- to liave existed tVom the eaidiest ages. The eoniparative aiiti(piitj of tlie dittereiit kinds of tonil)s heing thus doubtful, it will he sulKeient for the purposes of the pi-esi'ut work to classify them architecturally. It may be assumed, I believe, with safety, that all the modes which have been enumerated were i)ractised by the Etruscans at a period very sliohtlv subsequent to tlieir migration into Jtaly. Of the first class of the rock-ciit tombs — those with merely a faq-ade externally — the most remarkable groixp is that at C'astel d'Asso. At this place there is a perpendicular clift" with hiuidi'cds of these tombs ranged along its face, like houses in a street. A similar arrangement is found in Egypt at Beni Hassan, and atPetra, and aroinid all the more ancient cities of Asia Minor. In Etruria they generally Consist of one chamber lighted by the doorway only. Their internal arrangement appears to be an imitation of a dwelling chamber, Avith furniture, like the apartment itseK, cut out of the rock. Externally they have little or no pretension to architectural decoration. It is true that, executed at a much later period, and under Eoman domination, some tombs are found adorned with frontispieces of a debased Doric or Ionic order ; but such cannot be taken as specimens of Etruscan art, but rather of that corruption of style sure to arise from a conquered people trying to imitate the arts of their rulers. The general appearance of the second class of rock-cut tombs will be understood from the woodcut No. 229, representing two monuments at Castel d'Asso. Unfortunately neither is complete, nor is there any complete example known to exist of this class. I'erhaps the apex was added structurally ; and these, like all such things in Etruria, have perished. Perhaps, if cut in the rock, the tenninals were slender carved ornaments, and consequentl>' liable to injury. They are usually restored by antiquaries in the shape of rectilinear pyramids, but there is no authority for this as fai- as I know. On the contrary, it is more in accordance -sAath what we know of the style and its affinities to suppose that the termination of these monuments, even if added in masonry, was curvilinear. n ' 229. Tombs at Castel U'Asso. From the Annalc del Inslituto.

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290 ETRUSCAN AKCTIITErTniJE. I'.ook Vll. One romavkable thing ahont the rock-eut tomhs is the fonn of their nionl (lings, wliicli diiVer tVoni any found elsewhere in J]uropc. Two of these arc shown in the annexed woodcut (No. 230). Tliey are verj' numerous and in great variety, hut do not in any instance show the slightest trace of a coniice, nor of any tendency thereto. Jn place of this, on the conti-aiy, we find only a reverse moulding altogether. It is probable that similar fomis Avill be found in Asia IVIinor, and something 230. Mouldings from Tombs at resembling them occTirs at Persepolis and castei d'Asso. elscwhcro. It is remarkable that this feature did not penetrate to Rome, and that no trace of its influence is found there, as might be expected.' Tumuli. The simplest and therefore perhaps tlie earliest monument which can be erected, by a people who reverence their departed relatives, over the graves of the dead, is a mound of earth or a caini of sto;ies, and such seems to have been the fonn among the Tai-tar races of mankind from the earliest days to the present hour.* It is scarcely necessary to remark how uniA'crsal such moninnents were among the nider tribes of Morthcrn Europe. The Etruscans seem to have improved upon this by surroundiiig the base with a. podium, or supporting wall of masonry. This not only defined its limits and gave it dignity, but enabled entrances to be made in it, and othei'wise converted it fronx a mere hillock into a monumental structure. It is usually supposed that this basement was an invariable part of all Etniscan tinnuli, and Avhen it is not found it is assimied that it has been removed, or that it is hui-ied in the mbbish of the mound. Ko doubt such a stone basement may easily have been removed by the peasantry, or buried, but it is by no means clear that this wa.s invariably the ca.se. It seems tliat the enclosure was frequently a circle of stones or monumental steles, in the (icntrc of which the tumulus stood. The monuments have hithei'to been so carelessly examined and restored, that it is difficult to arrive at anything like ceiiainty with regard to the details of their structure. Nor can avc draw any certain conclusion from a comparison with other tumuli of cognate, races. The description by Herodotus of the tomi) of Alj-attes at Sardis, that by Pausanias of those of Epytus in Arcadia, and the ai)]>earances of those at Myceme and Orchojuonus, might be interpreted either way ; but those at Smyrna, and a great number at least of those in Etruria, have the circle of stones an a supporting b:use to the mound. ' llveii in more moilern times I know of as will be seen fai-ther on. no btiildine: showin;r a trace of these forms ex- * Sue woodcut No. 90, which might almost cept tlie tomb of 'i'hcocloric at iJaveinia. This, be taken for a representation of an Etruscan however, is Ktruscaii Imtli in fonn and dft.-iil, tomb.

CllAl'. I. TUMULI. 201 These tumuli are found existing" in immense numbers in every necropolis of Etiuria. A largo space is generally set apart for the ]»urpose outside the walls of all the great cities. In these cemeteries the tumuli are arranged in rows, like houses in streets. Even now we can count them by hundreds, and in the neighbourhood of the largest cities — at Vulci, for instance — almost by thousands. Most of them are now worn do^vn by the eifect of tinu; to nearly the level of the ground, though some of the larger ones still retain an imposing appearance. Nearly all have been rifled at some early period, though the treasures still discovered almost daily in some places show how vast their extent was, and how much even now remains to be done before this vast mine of antiquity can bo said to be exhausted. One of the most remai'kablo among those that have been opened iu modern times is at Cervetere, the ancient Caere, known as the Eegulini Galeassi tomb, from the names of its discoverers. Like a Nubian pyramid or Buddhist tope, it consists of an inner and older tumulus, around and over which another has been added. In the outer mound arc 5 tombs either of dependent or inferior personages. These were rifled long ago ; but the outer pyramid having effectually 231. I'liin of Regulini Galeassi Tomb. Scale 1 00 ft. to 1 in. 232. Sections of negulini Galeassi Tomb. From Caniim's Etniria ,\tilica. Scale for large section, 50 ft. to 1 in. u 2

2112 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. •233. tieciiuii of a Tomb at Ca.Te. No Scale. concealed tlie entrance to the prineijtal tomb, it remained nntonched till very lately, Avhen it yielded ttt it.s dieeoveiers a I'iclier culleetiun ol" ornaments and utensils in gold and bronze than have ever been found in one place before. The dimensions and arrangements of this tnnnilus Avill be luiderstood from woodcuts Nos. 2^1 and 2;52, and fiom the two sections of the principal tomb which are annexed to them. These last displa}- an ii-ix-gularity of constniction very xinusual in such c;u»cs, for which no cause can bo assigned. The usual section is perfectly regular, as in the annexed woodcut (No. 233), taken from another tomb at the same place. These chambers, like all those of the early Etruscans, are vaulted on the horizontal principle, like the tombs at Mycena? and Orchomenus. None found in Italy arc at all equal to those of Greece in dimensions or beauty of construction. Woodcut Xo. 234 is a perspective view of the principal chamber in the Eegulini Galeassi toml), showing the position of the furniture found in it when hrst opened, consisting of bii>rs t)r bedsteads, shields, arrows, and vessels of various soi-ts. A number of vases are hung in a curious recess in the roof, the form of which would be inexplicable but for the utensils found in it. AN ith this clue to its meaning we can scarcely doubt that it represents a place for hanging such vessels in llic houses of tlie living. All the treasures found in this tomb are in the oldest style of Etruscan art, and are so similar to the 1 )ronzes and ornaments brought by Lay art! from Assyria

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ClIAl'. 1. TUMULI. L".t; Near its centre are the remains of two solid lowers, one eirenlar, the otlier wjuare, iieitlier of them actually ei'utral, nor are tliey phieed in sneh a way that Ave can nnderstand liow they can have foimed a part of any symnictrieal desin;n. A phm and a view of the present appearance of this monnmont are o'iven in tlie woodcuts, Mos. 235 and 2;{(). Tills tumulus, with its principal remaining features thus standing on one side of the centre, may possil)ly assist iis to understand the curious description found in Pliny ' of the tomb of Porsenna. This description is quoted from Varro, being evidently regarded by ITiny himself as not a little apocryphal. According to this account it consisted of a square basement 300 ft. each way, from which arose 5 pyramids, united at the summit by a bronze circle or cupola. This was again sunnounted by 4 other pyramids, the summits of which wei'e again united at a height of 300 ft. from the ground. From this point rose still 5 more pyramids, whose height Varro (from modesty, as Pliny suiTuises) omits to state, but which was estimated in Etniscan traditions at the same height as the rest of the monument. This last statement, which does not rest on any real authority, may well be regarded as exaggerated; but if we take the total height as about -iOO ft., it is easy to understand that in the ago of Pliny, when all the buildings weie low, such a structure, as high as the steeple at Salisbur}-, would appear fabidous ; but the vast piles that have been erected l)y tond)-l»uilding races in other parts of -the earth render it by no means imprubal)le that Varro was justified in what he assorted. 235. Plan of Cdcumella, Vulci. Seal' liiiift. ki 1 in. 236. View of Cocumella, Vulci. *^^>. ' Plin. Hist., xxxvi. 13.

294 ETRUSCAN AKCIIlTECTUliE. Book VII. Scale 30 (k. ro lin. Scale leu It. to 1 in 237. Tomb of Aruns, All>aiio. Near the i;ate of Albuno is found a small tomb of 5 pyramidal pillars rising from a sqmxro btiso, exactly corresponding with Varro's descnption of tho lower part of the tomb of Torscnna. It is called by trailition the tomb of Anins, the son of Torsenna, though the cbiractor of tho mouldings with whicli it is adorned Nvould lead us to assign to it a more modem date. It consists of a lofty podium. i>n which ;ire placed 6 pyramids, a large one in the centre and 4 smaller ones at tlio angles. Its present appearance is sllo^\^l in the annexed woodcut (No. 237). There are not in Etniria any features sufficiently marked to characterise a stylo of architecture, nor any pillars with their accessories which can bo considered to constitute an order. It is true tliat in some of the rock-cut tombs square piers support the roof; and in one or two instances rounded pillars are found, but these are either without mouldings or ornamented only with Roman details, betraying the lateness of their execution. The absence of built examples of the class of tombs found in tho rock prevents us from recogiiising any of those peculiarities of construction which sometimes arc as characteristic of the style and as worthy of attention as the more purely ornamental parts. From their city gates, their acpieducts and bridges, wo know that the Etruscaiis used tho radiating arch, with deep voussoirs and elegant mouldings, at an early age, giving it that character of strength which tlxe Romans afterwards imparted to their works of the same class. The Cloaca Maxima of Rome (woodcut No. 192) must be considered as a work executed under Etniscan superintendence, and a veiy perfect specimen of the class. At the same time the Etniscans used the pointed arch, constnicted horizontally, and seem to have had tho same predilection for it which characterised the cognate Telasgian race in Greece. A gateway at Aaiiino (woodcut No. 238) is almost identical with that at Thoricus, but larger and more elegant; and there arc many .s])ociniens of tho siiine chuss found in Italy. Tho jiortion of an a

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Chap. I. THE AliCli. wlioro tliu two stones lucoting uL tiiu apex (usually culled the E}j;y|)ti;ui t'onu, beinu; the lirst stop tuwarils ilu^ true arch) arc combined witli a substructure ofhurizonfcvl cunvergini;masonry. In either of those instances the horizontal arch is a legitimate mode of construction, and may have been used long after the principle of the radiating arch was known. The great tionvenienco of the latter, as enabling largo s])aces to be spanned oven with brick or the smallest stones, and thus dis})ensing with the necessity for stones of very largo dimensions, led ultimately to its universal adoption. Subsequently, when the pointed form of the radiating arch was introduced, no motive remained for the retention of the horizontal method, and it was entirely abandoned. 239. Aquciluct at Tusculuni.

296 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Hook VII. CHAPTER 11. H O M E. INTRODUCTION. Wp: now approach the last revolution that completed and closed the great cycle of the arts and civilization of the ancient world. We have seen Art spring Minerva-like perfect from the head of her gi-eat parent, in Egypt. We have admired it in Assyria, nch, varied, but unstable ; aiming at everything, but never attaining maturity or perfection. We have tried to trace the threads of early rela*ig-ic art in Asia, Greece, and Etruria, spreading its influence over the world, and laying the foundation of other arts which the Pelasgi were incapable of developing. We have secTi all these elements gathered together in Greece, the essence extracted from each, and the whole combined into the most peifect and beautiful combinations of intellectual power that the world has yet %vitnessed. We have now only to contemplate the last act in the great drama, the gorgeous but melancholy catastrophe by which all these styles of architecture were collected in wild confusion in Kome, and perished beneath the luxury and crimes of that mighty i)eople. View them as we will, the arts of Kome were never an indigenous or natural production of the soil or people, but an aggregation of foreign stylos in a state of transition from the old and time-honoured forms of I'agan antiquity to the new development of Christian arts. We cannot of course suppose that the Komans foresaw the result to which their amalgamation of previous styles was tending, still they advanced as steadily towards that result as if a prophetic spirit had guided them to a well-defined conception of what was to be. It was not however permitted to the Romans to complete this task. Long before the ancient methods and ideas had been completely moulded into the new, the power of Kome sank beneath her corruption, and a long pause took jilafc. during which the Christian arts did not advance beyond the point they had readied in the age of ( Vmstjintine. Indeed in many respects they receded from it during tlu- dark ageti. \\ hen they reajipeared in the 10th and 1 1th centuries it was in an entirely new garb, and with scarcely a trace of their origin — so distinct indeed that it appears more like a reinvention than a leproduction of fonns long since familial- to tlie Koman world. Thus had Kome ret^iined her power and pre-eminence a centniy or two longer, a style might have been elaborated as distinct from that of the ancient world, and as complete in itself, as owr pointed Gothic, and perhaps more beautiful. Such was

CiiAi'. 11. INTRODUCTION. 2'J7 Jiut the destiny of the world ; and what we have now to do is to examine this stvh' (if transition as we find it in ancient Konic;, and familiarise ourselves with the forms it took during the throe eeutnries of its existence, as without this knowledge all the arts of the Gothic era would for ever remain an inexplicable niystor3\ The chief value of the Koman style consists in the fact that it contains the germs of all that is found in the middle ages, and afibrds the key by which its mysteries may be; unlocked, and its treasures rendered available. Had the transition been carried through in the hands of an art-loving and artistic peoi)le, the architectural beauties of Eome mnst have em-passed those of any other city in the world, for their buildings surpass in scale those of Egypt, and in variety those of Greece, while they pretend to combine the beauties of both. In constructive ingenuity they far surpass anything the world had seen up to their time, but this cannot I'edeem their ottences against good taste, nor enable any of their productions to command our admiration as works of art, nor entitle them to rank as models to be followed either literally or in spirit. During the first two centuries and a half of her existence, Eome was virtually an Etrascan city, wholly under Etruscan influence ; and during that period we read of temples and palaces being built, and of works of immense magnitude being undertaken for the embellishment of the city ; and we have even now more remains of kingly than we have of consular Eome. After expelling her kings, and shaking off Etruscan influence, she existed as a republic for 500 years, and during this long age of barbarism she did nothing to advance science. Literature was almost wholly unknown "^ithin her walls, and not one monument has come down to our time, even by tradition, worthy of a city of a tenth part of her power and magnitude. There is probably no instance in the history of the world of a capital city existing so long, populous and ^leaceful at home, prosperous and powerful abroad, which at the same time was so utterly devoid of any monuments or any magnificence to dignify her existence. AVhen, however, Carthage was conqiiered and destroyed, when Greece was overrmi and plundered, and Egypt, with her long-treasured art, had become a dependent province, Eome was no longer the city of the Eomans, but the sole capital of the civilised world. Into her lap were poured all the artistic riches of the Avorld ; to Eome flocked all who sought a higher distinction or a more extended field than their own provincial capitals cotild then afford. She thus became the centre of all tlu^ aits and all jlic science then known ; and so far at least as (piantity is concerned, she amply }"edeemed her previous neglect. It seems an almost indisputable fact, that during the thi-ee centuries of the Empire moi'e and larger buildings were erected in Eome and her dependent cities than ever were erected in a like period in any part of the world. For centuries before the establishment of the Eoman Empire, j>i-ogressive development and increasing jiopulation, joined to com])aratiA-e peace and security, had accumulated around the shores of the Mediter

298 RUMxVN AKCIIITECTUKE. Book VII. ranean a mass of peoplo enjoying material prosperity greater than had ever been known before. All this culminated ui the first centuries of the Christian era. The greatness of the ancient world was then full, and a more overwhelming and gorgeous spectacle than the lioman em})Li'e then displayed never dazzled the eyes of mankind. From the banks of the Eujihrates to those of the Tagnis, every city vied with its neighbour in the erection of temples, baths, theatres, and edifices for public use or private luxury. Jn all ciises these display far more evidence of wealth and power than of taste and refinement, and all exhibit traces of that haste to enjoy, which seems incompatible with the correct elaboration of anything that is to be truly gi'cat. Notwithstanding all this, there is a greatness in tho mass, a grandeur in the conception, and a certain expression of powei" in all these Koman remains which never fail to strike the beholder Avith awe, and force him to admire in spite of his better judgment. These qualities, coupled with the associations that attach themselves to every brick and eveiy stone, render the study of them irresistibly attractive. It was -with imperial Kome that the ancient world perished : it was in her dominions that the new and Christian world was born. All that was great in Heathendom was gathered within her walls, tied, it is time, into an inextricable knot, which Avas cut by the sword of the barbarians, who moulded for themselves out of the fragments that polity and those arts which will next occupy OTir attention. To Kome all previous histor\' tends ; from Rome all modem history springs : to her therefore, and to her arts, we inevitably turn, if not to admire, at least to leani, ami, if not to imitate, at least to wonder, to contemplate a phase of art as unknown to previous as to subsequent histoiy, and, if pi-operly miderstood, more replete with instmction than any other form hitherto kno\\ai. Though tho lesson we learn from it is fixr oftener what to avoid than Avhat to follow^ still there is such wisdom to be gathered from it as should guide us in the onward path, and might lead us to a far higher gi'ade than it was given to liome herself ever to attain.

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ClIAl'. III. OUIGIN OF STYLE. 2'Jl) CHAPTER III. l.'OMAN AK('H]TF;('TniJK CONTENTS. Origiu of stj'le — The arch — Orders : Doric, louic, Coriuthiau, Composite — Temples — The I'uutheou — Koiiian teiiiplea at Atlieus — at Baalbec. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. DATES. I'^oumlatioii of Rome n.u. 753 Tarquiriiiis lYisciis —Cloaca Maxima, foundation ol'l'i^inplt.' of Jupiter Capitoliuus . 616 Templo of Jiipitur Capitiilinusdodicatetl . 507 Scipio — tomb at Lilerium ..... 184 Augustus— temples at Rome .... 31 Marcellus— theatre at Rome — died. . . 23 Agrippa — portico of Pantheon — died . . 13 Nero — burning and rebuilding of Rome — died A.D. 68 Vespasian— Flavian Amphitheatre built . 70 Titus— arch in Forum 79 Oostruction of Pompeii 'I'ngan — Ulpian Basilica and Pillar of Victory Hadrian builds temple at Rome, Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, &c. . Septimius Scverus— arch at Rome . . Caracal la— baths Diocletian — palace at Spalatro .... Maxentius— Basilica at Rome . . . . Constanline — transfer of Empire to Cmust;intinople DATES. A.D. 7S) 08 117 194 211 281 3U6 328 The earliest inhabitants of Eome were an Indo-Germanic race who cstablislietT themselves in a conntiy previously occupied Ly TehLsgians. Their principal neighbour on one side was Etruria, a Pelasgian nation. On the other hand was Magna Gra3cia, which had been colonised in very early ages by Hellenic or Indo-Germanic settlers. It was therefore impossible that the architecture of the Komans should not be in fact a mixture of that of these two people. As a style of transition, it was only a mechanical juxtaposition of the two styles. The real fusion took place many long centuries afterwards. Throughout the Eoman period they remain distinct, and there is no great difficulty in referring almost every feature to its origin. From the (jrreeks they borrowed the rectangular peristylar temple, Avith its columns and horizontal architraves, though they seldom if ever used it in its perfect purity, the cella of the Greek temples not being sufficient for their purposes. The principal Etruscan temples, as we have already shown, were square in plan, and the inner half occupied by one or more cells, to the sides and back of which the portico never extended. The Roman rectangular temple is a mixture of these two : it is generall3% like the Greek examples, longer than its breadth, but the cohmnade never, I believe, entirely suiTounds the building. Sometimes it extends to the two sides as well as the front, but more generally the cella occupies the whole of the inner i)art, though frequently

300 HUMAN AUCtllTECTL'KK. Book Vll. unmiUfiitcJ by u falsu peristyle uf three-ipiuiter colunins uttaclied to its walls. Besides this the IJomans boiTowed from the Etniscans a circular fonii of temple unknown to the Greeks, but which to their tomb-bnilding predecessors nnist have been not only a familiar but a favourite form. As used by the liomans it was generally encircled by a peristyle of columns, though it is not clear that the Etruscans so used it. Perhaps this is an improvement adopted from the Greeks on an Etruscan form. In early times these circular temples were dedicated to Vesta, Cyliele, or some god or goddess either unkno'vvu or not generally worshipped by the Indo-Gennanic races ; but in latter times this distinction was lost sight of. A more important characteristic which the Eomans bon-owed from the Etruscans was the cii'cular arch. It was kno-\\ni, it is tnie, to the Egj'ptians, Assyrians, and Greeks ; yet none of those people, perhaps excepting the Assyrians, seem to have used it as a feature in their ornamental architecture ; but the Etniscans seem to have had a peculiar predilection for it, and from them the Eomans adopted it boldly, and introduced it into almost all their buildings. It was not at first used in temples of Gieciau I'orm, nor even in their peristylar cii'Cular ones. In the civil buildings of the Komans it was a universal feature, but generally placed in juxtaposition with the Grecian orders. In the Colosseum, for instance, the whole construction is arched ; but a useless network of ill-designed and ill-aiTanged Grecian columns, with their entablatures, is sjjread over the whole. This is a curious instance of the mixture of the two styles, and as such is veiy characteristic of Homan art; but in an artistic point of view the place of these columns would have been far better sujiplied by buttresses or panels, or some more correctly constructive expedient. After having thoroughly familiarised themselves with the forms of the arch as an architectural feature, the Eomans made a bold stride in advance by applying it as a vault both to the ch'cular and rectangular foims of buildings. The most perfect examples of this are the Basilica of iMaxentius, commonly called the Temple of I'eace, and the liotunda of the Pantheon, both, probably, of nearly the same age. In these buildings the Eoman architects so completely emanciijated themselves from the tiajinnels

(UAr. 111. OEDEKS. 301 These two bnildings may bo considered as marking the progress the lionians wore able to make in the invention of a new style of arehiteeture, and tlic state in which they left it to their successors. It is worth remarking how, in transplanting Koman architecture to the new capital, the semi-Oriental nation seized on their own circular form, and, modifying and moulding it to their purpose, wrought out the liyzantine style. There the dome is the great feature, almost wholly to the exclusion of the rectangular foim Avith its intersecting vaults. ( hi the other hand, the rectangular form was appropriated by the Teutonic nations of the West with as distinct a rejection of the circular and domical forms, except in so f;ir as an Eastern people still were mixed up with them. Thus in Italy both continued long to be used, the one as a baptistery, the other as a church, but always distinct as in Home. In France they were so completely fused into one that it requiii;s considerable knowledge of architectural analysis to sepai'ate them again into their component parts. In England we rejected the circular form altogether, and so they did in Germany, except when under French influence. Each race reclaimed its own among the spoils of IJoiue, and used it with the improvements it had acquired during its employment in the imperial city. Orders. The first thing that strikes the student in attempting to classify the objects of Roman architectiire is the immense variety of their application, as compared with other styles. In Egypt there are onl}^ palaces and tombs. In Greece architecture was almost wholly confined to temples and theatres ; in Etiuria to tombs. In Eonie we have temples, basilicas, theatres and amphitheatres, baths, palaces, tombs, arches of triumph and pillars of victory, gates, bridges, and aqueducts, all equally objects of architectural skill. The best of these, in fact, are those which other countries neglected. They would have been noble works indeed had it not been that the Romans sought to apply to them the orders and details which were meant only for the temples in other nations. In the time of Constantino these orders were nearly dying out, or were at lefist reduced to mere subordinate ornaments. The next step would have been their entire abolition, when the h'oman would have been a new and complete style ; but, as before remarked, this last step was denied them, and the orders therefore are still an essential part of Roman art. These are most important in the age of Augustus, and gradually die out as we approach that of Constantino. The Doric. Adopting the usual classification, the first of the Roman orders is the Doric, which, like everything else in this style, takes a place about half-way between the Tuscan wooden posts and the nobly simple order ^)f the Greeks. It no doubt was a great improvement on the former, but for monumental purposes infinitely inferior to the latter. It was, however, more manageable ; and for forums or court-yards, or

302 ROMAN Alien ITECTUHE. Book VII. 210. Doric Order. as a threo-quartcr column between arcades, it was bettor adapted to their purposes than the severer Greek, which, when so emiiloyod, not only loses almost all its beauty, but becomes more unmeaning than the Koman. This was ap]iarcntly felt ; for there is not, so far as I know, a single Doric temple throughout the Koman world ; and it would in consequence bo most unfair to institute a comparison between a mere utilitarian prop and an order wliioh tho most refined artists in the world spent all their ingenuity in rendering the most perfect of architectui-al objects. The addition of an independent ba*;e made the order much more generally useful, and its adoption brought it much more into harmony with the other two orders, which seems to have been the princijKil object of its introduction. The key-note of Roman architecture w^as the Corinthian order ; and as, from the necessities of their tall many-storied buildings, they were fcjrced to use tlie three orders together, often one over the t)ther, it was indispensable that tlio three should be reduced to something like hanuony. This was accorduigly done, but at the expense of the Koman Doric order, which, except Avhen thus used in combination, must be confessed to have very little claim to our admiration. Ionic. The Komans were much more unfortunate in their modifications of the Ionic order than in those which they introduced into the Doric. They never seem to have either liked or understood it, nor to have em[)loyed it except an a mezzo tennine between the other two. In its own native East this order had originally only been used in porticos between piers or (t)if(v, where of course only one face was sho\m, and tliere were no angles to bo turned. \\ hen the Greeks adopted it they used it in temples of Dt»iic form, and in consequence were obliged to introduce a capital at each angle, ■until two volutcd faces in juxtaposition at right angles to one another. ^Vhcn the Romans took it up, impatient of control, they turned all the volutes angidarly, makin^^ them mere honis, and destrojnng all the '211. luiiic Order.

ClIAI'. Ill ORDERS. 303 rJK'JJIiii'^^^yWWTXWiMi f'-*y rr mmmbmrnF. nicaninf? and all the ^rnco of the order. This was not cfFocted at onco, lint was the result of a great many attempts to got over the diflicnltics inherent in the employment of this order. AVhen nscd as a threo-qnartor colnmn these alterations were not required, and tli( n the order looked ^^^ more like what it t)riginally was ; bnt even in this state it was never eqnal to the Greek examples, and gradually deteriorated to the corrnpt fomi as seen in the Temple of Concord in the Forum, which is the most degenerate example of the order now to be found in Eoman remains. COKINTHIAN. The fate of this order in the hands of the Komans was ditferent from that of the other two. The Doric and Ionic orders had reached their acme of perfection in the hands of the Grecian artists, and seem to have been incapable of further improvement. The Corinthian, on the contrary, was a recent invention ; and althougli nothing can surpass the elegance and grace with which the Greeks adorned it, this new capital never ac(piired with them that fulness and strength requisite to render it an appi'i:)priat(! architectural ornament. These wore added to it by the Komans, or rather jierhaps by Grecian artists acting under their direction, who thus, as shown in the woodcut No. 242, produced a column which for richness combined Avith proportion and architectural fitness has hardly been surpassed. The base is elegant and appropriate : the shaft is of the most pleasing proportion, and the fluting gives it just the requisite degree of richness and no more ; and the capital, though bordering on mmm^ ODDD 242. Corintliian Order. From the Temple of Jupiter Stutor.

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('HAl'. III. OKl>Ki;S. 305 r n n Kj \^j C C z X ) 243. (Joniposite Onler. .suiucthiug better tluui was accoiu])lislied in that age; ami a collection of them would ail'ord more useful su_i;";j;csti(iiis foi- desiguiup; capitals tlian have yet hceu availalile to modeiu ai'tisls. (■OMl'OSITK OhDEK. Among their vavioiis attempts to improve the order which has jiist been described, the Eomans hit upon one which is extremely characteristic of their whole style of art. This is known by the distinguisliing name of the Composite order, though virtually it is more like the typical examples of the Corinthian order than many of those classed under the latter denomination. The greatest defect of the Corinthian capital is the weakness of the small volutes supporting the angles of the abacxis. A true artist would have remedied this by adding to their strength, and carrying up the fulness of the capital to the top. The Romans removed the whole of the upper part, and substituted an Ionic capital instead. Their onl}^ original idea, if it may be so called, in art, was that of the putting two dissimilar things together to make one which should combine the beauties of both, though in fact the one only sen'es to destroy the other. In the Composite capital they never could hide the junction ; and consequently, though rich and in some respects an improvement on the order out of which it gi"ew, this capital never came into general use, and has seldom found favour except amongst the blindest admirers of all that the Komans did. In the latter days of the Empire the Komans attempted another innovation Avhich promised fiir better success, and with very little mort.' elaboration would have been a great gain to the principles of architectural design. This was X 244. Corinthian Base, now found in Cliurcli of St. I'laxcde in Home.

306 ROMAN AUCHITECTUKE. Book VII. the introdnction of tlio Pcvsijin or Assyrian base, modified to suit the details of the Corinthian or Composite orders. If they had always used this instead of the s(j[uare pedestals on which they nu)unted their columns, and had attenuated the pillars slightly when used with arcades, they would have avoided many of the errors they fell into. The invention, however, came too late to be generally used ; and the forms already introduced continued to prevail. At the same time it is evident that a Persepolitan base for an Ionic and even for a Corinthian column would be among the greatest improvements that could be introduced, especially for internal architecture. Composite Arcades. The true Eoman order, however, was not any of these columnar ordinances we have been enumerating, but an arrangement of 2 pillars placed at a distance from one another nearly equal to theii' own height, and having a very long entablature, which in consequence required to be supported in the centre by an arch springing from jiiers. This, as will be seen from the annexed woodcut, was in fact merely a screen of Grecian architecture placed in front of a construction of Etruscan design. Thongh not Avithout a certain richness of eifect, still, as used by the Komans, these two systems remain too distinctly dissimilar for the result to be pleasing, and their use necessitated certain supplemental arrangements by no means agreeable. In the first place, the columns had to be mounted on pedestals, or otherwise an entablature proi)ortional to their si/e Avoxild have been too heavy and too important for a thuig so useless and so avowedly a mere ornament. A projecting key-stone was also introduced into the arch. This was unobjectionable in itself, but, when projecting so far as to do the duty of an intermediate capital, it overpowered the arch without being equal to the work required of it. The Romans used these arcades with all the 3 orders, frequently one over the other, and tried various expedients to harmonise the construction with the ornamentation, but Avitlunit much efi'ect. They seem always to have felt the discordance as a l)kinish, and at last got rid of it, but whether they did so in the best way is not quite clear. The most obvious mode of eftecting this would no doubt have been by omitting the ])illars altogether, bending the architrave, as is usually done, round the arch, and then inserting the frieze and cornices into the wall, using them as a string-course. A slight degree of ])ractice would soon have enabled them — by panelling the pier, cutting off its 2J5. Doric Arcade.

('MAP. 111. COMPOSITE AllCADES. 307 angles, or some such expedient— to liavc obtained tlie dej^Tce of lightness or of ornament they recpiircd, and so leally to have invented a new order. This, however, was not the course that the Komans ptirsned. ^^ hat they did was to remove the pier altogether, and to substitute in its plaee tlic pillar taken down from its pedestal. This of course was not I'tlected at once, but was the result of many trials and expedients. One of the earliest of these is observed in the Ionic Temple of Concord before allnded to, in Avhich a concealed arch is thrown from the head of each pillar, but above the entablature, so as to take the whole weight of the supei'structure from off the cornice between the pillars. When once this was done it was perceived that so deep an entablature was no longer required, and that it might be either wholly omitted, as was sometimes done, in the centre intercolumniation, or at all events very much attenuated. There is an old temple at Talavera in Spain, which is a good example of the former expedient ; and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built by Constantine at Jerusalem, is a remarkable example of the latter. There the architrave is cut oif so as merely to form a Idock over each of the pillars, and the frieze and cornice only are carlied across from one of these blocks to the other, while a bold arch is thrown from pillar to pillar over these, so as to take any weight from off a member which has at last become a mere ornamental part of the style. In the preceding reign we find all these changes already introduced into domestic architecture, as shown in the woodcut on the next i)age, representing the great court of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro, where at one end the entablature is wholly omitted for the central intercolumniation, and at the sides the arches spring directly from the capitals of the columns. Had the Eomans at this period been attempting to improve tlieii' external architecture, there is little doubt but that they would have adopted the expedient of the entire omission of the entablature ; Init at this time almost all their efforts were devoted to internal improvement, often at the expense of the exterior. Indeed the whole history of Eoman art, from the time of Augustus to that of Constantine, is a transition from the external architecture of the Greeks to the intenial architecture of the Christians. At first we see the cells of the temple gradually enlarged at the expense of the peristyle, and at last, as in the Pantheon, entirel}' overpowering them. Their basilicas and halls become more important than their porticos, and the exterior is in almost every instance sacrificed to the internal arrangements. For an interior, an arch resting on a circular column is obviously far more appropriate than one resting on a pier. Exteinally, on the contrary, the stjuare pier is most suitable, because a pillar cannot support a wall of sufficient thickness. This defect was not remedied until the Gothic architects devised the plan of coupling two or more pillars together ; but this point had not been reached at the time when IJome fell, and all piogress in art was eftectuallj' checked f

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■M)b IJOMAN AUCIU'I'ECTUKE. Book VII. a c '''%f-g€*^^'l

Chap. III. TKMI'LES. .'!» Tkmi'i.ks. ThiMc> is perhaps notliini:; that striki's thv imiuirer into the architectural hifstory of the Imperial city moiv than the extreme insignificance of her temples, as compared with the other buildings of Konie itself, and with some temples fnind in the provinces. The only tcni]de which remains at all worthy uf sucli a capital is the I'antheoii. All others are now mere fragments, from which we can hardly restore even the ]»lans of the buildings, much less judge of their effect. We have now no means of judging what the great national temple of the Capitoline .love may have been, no trace of it, nor any intelligible description, having lieen presei-ved to the present tune. Its being of Etruscan origin, and retaining its original form to the latest day, would lead us to suppose that the temple itself was small, and its mag^lificence, if any. confined to the enclosure and to the substructure, which may have been innncnse. Of the Augustan age we have nothing but the remains of 3 temples, consisting of only 3 columns of each ; and the excavations that have been made around them have not sufficed to make even their ])lans tolerably clear. The most beautiful was that of Jupiter Stator in the Fonim, the beauty of whose details has been already alluded to and described. This temple was octastyle in front. It was raised on a stylobate 22 ft. in height, whoso extreme width -was 98 ft., which corresponds as closely as possible with 100 Koman ft. The angular columns are 8.') ft. from centre to centre. The height of the pillars was 48 ft., and that of the entablature 12 ft. 6 in.' It is probable that the whole height to the apex of the pediment was nearly etpial to the extreme width, and meant to be so. The pillars certainly extended on both flanks, and generally it is restored as peristylar, but I believe without any authority. Frtmi tlu" analogy of the other temples it seems more proliable that there wei-e not more than 8 or 10 pillars on each side, and that the apse of the cclla formed the termination opposite the portico. The temple nearest to this in situation and style is that of Jupiter Tonans.- The order in this instance is of slightly inferior dimensions to that of the temple just described, and of very inferior ex(H'ution. The temple too was Yorj much smaller, having only 0 ctdiimns in front, and from its situation it could not well have had more than that number on the flanks, so that its extreme dimensions were probably about 70 ft. by 85 ft. > Those (linionsions, with all those that by the lloni.-m or ratiier (iornian .iiiticiiiarinns. follow, unless otherwise speeified, are taken Tlie Jujiiter Ti>nans is now llie 'reni])le of from Taylor and Creasy's ' Architectural An- Saturn, and the .lujiiter Stator is decreed to tiquities of Rome,' London, 1821. Theyseem have been a Temple of Minerva. 1 have j)remore to be depended upon than any others ferred the nan)es by which they arc currently I am acquainted witli. known, as the architecturo is of more im])ort* These two temples, like almost all tin- ance here than the archa-ology. others of Home, have recently been re-named

810 KUMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book V ■247. Temple of Mars Ullur. From Creasy's Hour'. Thf tliird is the Tom]ile of Mars Ultov, nf whicli a plan is ainiexcd ; lor tliuugli iiuw us coiupletclj ruinous as the other two, in the time of Ant. Sabacco and Palladio there Kcem to have been sufficient remains to justify a restoration. As ^vill be seen, it is nearly square in plan (112 ft. by 120). The eella is here a much more important part than is usual in Greek temples, and terminates in an ajjse, which afterwards became characteristic of all i)laces of worship. Behind the cella, and on each side, was a lofty screen of walls and arclies, part of which still remain, which certainly formed quite a new adjunct to anything we know (if in a temple form. The next class of temples, called pseudo-peripteral (or those in which the cella occupies the whole of the after part), are generally more niodern. certainly more completely lioman, than these last. One of the best sjjccnmens at Home is the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, a small building measuring 72 ft. by 120. There is also a very elegant small Ionic temj)le of this class called that of Fortuna A'iiilis; and the Ionic Temple of Concord, built by Vesiiasian, above alluded to, seems also to have been of this class. So was the temple in the forum at I'ompeii ; but the finest specimen now remaining to us is the so-called Maison QuaiTce at Nimes, which is indeed one of tlie most elegant temples of the ii'oman world, owing probably a great deal of its Ix'auty to the taste of the Grecian colonists long settled in its neighbourhood. It is hexastyle, with 11 columns in the Hanks, 8 of which ,si and free, and belong to the portico; the remaining S aie attached to the Avails of the cella. The temple is small, only 45 ft. by 85 ; but such is the beauty of its proportions and the elegance of its details that it strikes every beholder with admii'ation. The date of this temple has not been satisfactoiily ascertained. Froju the nail-holes of the inscription on the frieze it has been attempted tn make out the names of Caius and Lucius Caesar, but it much moie jtrobably belongs t(j the time of Trajan or of Hadrian, when >\imesAvas in the height of its prosjierity. Not far from the Colosseum, in the direction of the forum, are still to be seen the remains of a great double temple built by the Emperor Hadrian, and dedicated to Venus and Kome. Nothing of this is now to be found but the remains of the 2 cells, each altout 70 ft. scpiare, covered with tunnel vaults, and placed back to back, so that their apses touch one another. These stand on a ])latform 480 ft. long by 330 wide; and it is generally supposed that on the edge of this stood 5() great culunnis, 05 ft. in height, thus moulding the whole into one great ])eripteral temple. Some fragments of such pillars are said to be found in the neighhouihood, but not one erect, — not even a base in its place,— nor can any of its cohnnns be traced as transpoi-ted to any

CllAl'. Ill 'I'lOMPLES. 3n other lmiMiiii;-s : so that T am afraid this pai-1 ul' the arraiigcuiciit is very i)robk'matical, ami I shcmkl bo rather iuclinctl to restore it, as ralladio and the older arcliitects have dene, with a corridor of 10 small columns in front of each of the cells. If we could assume the plan of this teniiile to have been really peripteral, as sup]->osed, it must have been a building worthy of the Imperial city, and of the magnificence of the emperor to whom its erection is ascribed. More perfect and more interesting than any of these is the Tantheon, which is undoubtedly one of the finest temples of the ancient world. Externally its effect is very much destroyed by its two parts, the round and the rectangular, being so dissimilar in style and so incongruouslyjoined together. The portico especially, in itself the finest which liome exhibits, is very much injured by being prefixed to a mass which overpowers it and does not harmonise with any of its lines. The pitch, too, of its pediment is perhaps somewhat too high, but, notwithstanding all this, its 1 (5 columns, the shaft of each composed of a single block, and the simple grandeur of the details, render it perhaps the most satisfactory example of its class. The pillars are disposed in the Etruscan fashion, and it is probable that originally they formed the portico to a 3-celled temple. ' The ])ortico, as we know, not only from the inscription, but from the style, lielongs to the age of Augnistus, and it is generally supposed that it was at that time added by Agrippa to the pre-existing rotunda. I feel convinced that the contrary was the case, and that the rotunda is very much more modern than the portico, ^^'e know from history that the building was frequently damaged by fire, and restored first by Iladi-ian and afterwards by Septimitis Sevcrus in the year a.d. 202. If the interior of the building, as originally erected, consisted of rectangulai' cells of the Etruscan form, constructed of wood — at any rate with a wooden roof — which I believe to have been the case, such disasters were not only possible, but probable : but no fire could damage such a building as we now find. Besides this, Ave know of no attempt at vaulting on anything like such a scale as this in the Augustan age, and the temples at that time all affected the Greek peristylar form. Thenceforward the cells were gradually enlarged, and gradually, too, the exterior was sacrificed to the interior, which characteristics arc here carried to excess. Besides this, the masoniy of the rotunda is full of useless discharging arches, and shows other peculiarities of the latest age. All these considerations put together would incline me to place 'J4S. I'kui of I'antlicon at Rome. Scale 1 00 ft. to 1 in.

312 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. it very near the a<: of="" consfantine="" coixld="" i="" find="" aii="" trace="" a="" later="" restoration="" than="" that="" above="" alluded="" to="" but="" under="" any="" circumstjmces="" do="" ntit="" think="" it="" can="" have="" been="" erected="" before="" the="" age="" hadrian.="" half="" elevation="" section="" pantheon="" at="" rome.="" scale="" ft.="" in.="" internally="" perhaps="" greatest="" defect="" building="" is="" want="" height="" in="" pei="" part="" dome="" appears="" overpower="" and="" cnish.="" this="" mistake="" aggravated="" by="" lower="" being="" cut="" uj="" into="" two="" stories="" an="" attic="" placed="" over="" order.="" fonner="" may="" arisen="" from="" architect="" wishing="" keep="" walls="" some="" proportion="" portico.="" latter="" peculiarity="" which="" suppose="" tliis="" temple="" when="" or="" more="" seem="" become="" indispensable="" retpiisites="" architectui="" design.="" we="" must="" ascribe="" also="" practice="" method="" cutting="" through="" entablature="" arches="" great="" niches="" as="" shown="" sectional="" last="" woodcut.="" has="" already="" pointed="" out="" w="" becoming="" characteristic="" style="" time="" circular="" erected.="" notwithstanding="" these="" defects="" many="" others="" detail="" might="" be="" mentioned="" tlicrc="" i.s="" grandeur="" simplicity="" proportions="" gi-eat="" temjde="" render="" still="" one="" very="" finest="" most="" sublime="" inteiiors="" world="" though="" deprived="" its="" bronze="" covering="" greater="" those="" ornaments="" on="" mainly="" depended="" fur="" cft="" lid="" replaced="" tawdry="">

Chai'. III. TEMPLES. l.i 250. Plan of Temple at Tivoli. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. aiul inooiignums niodornisms, still notliiiip; onii flostvoy the offoct of a design so vitst ami of a form so siiu})!}' grand. Jt possesses jinotlier clement of architectural sublimity in having only one window, and that placed high up in the hnilding. I know of no other temples which possess this feature except the great rock-cut Buddhist basilicas of India. In them the light is introduced even more artistically than here ; hut, nevertheless, that one great eye opening upon heaven is by far the noblest conception for lighting a building to be found in Europe. Besides this great rotunda there are two other circular temjilcs in or near Kome. The one, at Tivoli, shown in plan and elevation in the annexed woodcuts (Nos. 250 and 251), has long been known and admired ; the other, near the mouth of the Cloaca Maxima, has a cell surromided by 20 Corinthian columns of singularly slender proportions. Both these probably stand on Etruscan sites, and certainly were Etruscan in form, and probably sacred to Pelasgic deities, either Vesta or Cybele. Both in dimensions and design they form a perfect contrast to the Pantheon, as might be expected from their both belonging to the Aug-ustan age of art : consequently the cella is small, its interior unornamented, and all the art and expense lavished on the external features, especially the peristyle, show more strongly than even the rectangular temple the still i-emaining predumiuance of Grecian taste, which had disappeared before the erection of the Pantheon. It is to be regretted that the exact date of both these temi)les is unknown, for, as that at Tivoli shows the stoutest example of a Corinthian column known, and that in Eome the slenderest, it might lead to some important deductions if we could be certain which was the older of the two. It may lie, however, that this diiierence of style has no connexion with the relative age of the two buildings, but that it is merely an instance of the good taste of the age to which thoy belong. The Ponian example, being placed in a low and fiat situation, required all the height ihat could be given it; that at Tivoli, being placed on the edge of a rock, recpiired as much solidity as the order would admit of to prevent its looking poor and insecure. A Gothic (u- a Greek architect would certainly have made this distinetion. 251. Kestored Klevation of Temple at Tivoli. Scale 5IJ ft. to 1 in. 252. Plan and Klevaiimi ot I eniim' iii Diocletian's Palace at Spalatm. Scnlc for Plan lon ft. t

314 IJOMAN AUCH1TP:CTUKE. Book VII. One muro Ktcp tuwaids the luodeni style of luiirnl temples was taken before the fall of the Western Empire, in the temple whieh Dioeletian built in lii.s jtalace at Spalatro, Internally the temple is circular, 28 ft. in diameter, and the heij;ht to the dome, or peii>endieulai- i)art, is about equal to its widtli. This is a much more pleasing propoition than we find in the Pantheon, perhaps the veiy best that has yet been employed. Externally the building is an octagon, surroinided by a low dwarf peristyle, very unlike that employed in the older examples. This angularity is certainly a great improvement, giving expiession and character to the building, and all'ording Hat faces for the entrances or porches ; but the peristyle is too low, and mars the dignity of the whole.' To us its ])rincipal interest resides in its being so extremely similar to the Christian baptisteries which were erected in the following centuries, and which were copies, but very slightly altered, from buildings of this class. Athens, Even assuming that Hadrian completed the great temple of Venus and Home in the manner generally supposed, it must have been very fai- surjiassed by the great temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, which, thongh probably not entirely erected, was cei-tainly finished, by tliat emperor. It was decastyle in front, with a double range of 20 columns on each flank, so that it could not well have had less than 120 columns, all about 58 ft. in height, and of the most elegant (^orinthian order, presenting a group of more extended magnificence than any other temple we are actpiainted with of its class in the ancient world. Its lineal dimensions also, as may be seen fiom the l>lan (woodcut No. 222), were unrivalled, as it was 171 ft. wide by o54 in length, or, as nearly as may be, the same as those of the great Hypostvle Hall at Kaniac, from which, however, it difTers most materially, that being an interior, this de})ending fur all its magniliceuce on tlie external arrangement of its columns. Nothing now remains to enable us to restore its internal arrangement with anything like certainty; but there seems reason to believe that the outer part of the cella was arranged as a peristylar court oi)cn in the centre, itrobably in two stories, so as to admit light into the interior. This arrangement became so common in the early Christian world that there must have Ijcen some precedent for it which, besides (.)ther reasons,* strongly incline me to believe that the arrangement shown in the plan is correct. Haalbec. The temples of Talmyra and Kangovar have l)een already mentioned in speaking of that of Jerusalem, to which class they seem to ' This huildins is commonly called a of some sort. tcm))Ie, thmi^'li it is iu>t known to what deity ■' See ' True l'iincii>Ies of 15cauty in Ait,' it was dedie.ited. My own inii>iession is that ]i. iSO'J, where the reasons for this arrangeit was a tomh, or at least a funeial monument nient will be found stated at length.

Chai". TEMPLES. ;^15 belont;- in tlicir gcnoral aiTangeiucnts, thoiigli iliciv ili^tnils arc hnrrowcfl from h'oiuau avi-hitocturo. This, liowcvcr, is nut the case witli the teiui)les at r)aall)ee, Avhich, taken together and with their accompaniments, form the most magnificent temph^ group now left to ns of their cUiss and age. The great temple, if completed (which, however, it probably never was), would have been about IGO ft. by 2l>0, and therefore only inferior to that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, Only 9 of its colossal columns are now standing, but the bases of most of the others are in situ. Scarcely less magnificent than the temple itself was the court in which it stood, above 380 ft. square, and sin-rounded on 3 sides by recessed porticos of most exuberant richness, though ]ierhaps rather questionable taste. In front of this was a hexagonal court of very great beauty, with a noble portico of 12 Corinthian columns, with 2 square blocks of masonry at each end. The whole extent of the portico is 260 ft., and of its kind it is perhaps unrivalled, certainly among the buildings of so late a date as the period to which it belongs. The other, a smaller temple, stands close to the larger. Its dimensions, to the usual scale, are shown in the plan (woodcut No. 253). It is larger than any of the Konian peripteral temples, being 117 ft. by 227 ft., or rather exceeding the dimensions of the rarthenon at Athens, and it is both wider and higher than the portico of the runtheon at Kome. Had this portico been applied to that building, the slope of its pediment would have coineided exactly with that of the upper sloping cornice, and would have been the greatest possible improvement to that edifiee. As it is, it certainly is the best proportioned and the most graceful Koman portico of the first class that remains to us in a state of sufticient comi)leteness to allow us to judge of its eftcct. The interior of the cella was richly ornamented with niches and 253. Plan of Small Temple al D.ialbcc. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. 254. Elevation of Snuill U \ny\'^ at Baalbec. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.

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316 ROMAN AECIITTECTURE. Book A'll. pilasters, and covered with a ribbed and coU'ered vault, remarkable, like every part of this edifice, rather for the ])rofnsioii than for the good taste of its ornaments. One of the ])nncii)al ])ecidiaritics of this gron]) of buildings is, Iho immense size of some of the stones used in the substructure of the great temple : tliree of these average about 03 ft. in length, 10 ft. 5 in. in breadth, and 13 ft. in height. A fourth is lying i:i the quany of similar dimensions, which it is calculated must weigh alone more than 1100 tons in its rough state, or nearly as much as one of the tubes of the Piiitannia bridge. It is not eas}' to see of what use STich masses were ; but ill many places in the Bible and in Josephus nothing is so much insisted upon as the immense size of the stones used in tht; btiilding of the temi>le and the walls of Jerusalem, which seems to have been thought far more im])ortant than the architecture. Tt juobably was some such feeling that led to their cm]»loyment here, though, had they been set upright as the Egyptians would have done, it would he easier to understand why so great an expense should have been incurred oil tlioir account.

CiiAi'. IV. I'.ASiiJCAs. ;:i' C^H AFTER TV. r.ASILICAS, TTIEATKE8, AND BATHS. CONTENTS. IJasilica.s of Tnijan ;iml Maxentius — Provincial basilicas — Theatre at Orange C"olos.soiuu — Provincial amphitheatres — Baths of Diocletian. Basilicas. Wk luive already secai that in size and magnificence the temples of liume were amono; tlic least remarkahle of her public Imildings. It may be doiilited whether, in any respect, in the eyes of the L'omans themselves, the temples were as important and venerable as the basilicas. That people cared for government and justice more than for I'eligion, and consequently paid more attention to the affaii's of the basilicas than to those of the temples. Our means for the restoration of this class of buildings are now but small, owing to their slight eonstniction in the first instance, and to their mateiials having been so suitable for the building of Christian basilicas as to have been extensively used for that purpose. It happens however that the remains which we do possess comprise what we know to have been the two most splendid basilicas of Home, and aie sufficiently complete to enable us to I'estore their plans with considerable confidence. It is also fortunate that one of these, the Ulpian or Ti ajan's basilica, is the typical specimen of those with Avooden roofs ; tlie other, that of Maxentius. commonly called the Temple of Peace, is the noblest of the vaulted class. The rectangular part of Trajan's basilica was 180 ft. in width and a little more than twice that in length, but, neither end having yet been excavated, its exact longitudinal measurement has not been ascertained. It was divided into 5 aisles by 4 rows of columns, each aboTit 35 ft. in height, the centre being 87 ft. wide, and the side aisles 23 ft. 4 in. each. The centie was covered by a wooden roof of semicircular form, covered apparently with lironze plates richly oinamcnted and gilt. Above the side aisles was a gallery, the roof of whic;h was su])portcd by an upper row of columns. Fiom the same columns also sprang the arches of the great central aisle. The total internal height was thus probably about 120 ft., or higher than any English cathedral, though not so high as some (Jenuan and French ones. At one end was a great semicircular apse, the back pait of which was raised, being approached by a semicircular range of ste])s. In the centre of this platform was the laiscd scat of the ipia'stor or other magistrate who picsidcd. On each side, upon the steps, were jtlaccs

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318 ROMAN AKCniTECTlJlU':. Book VI 255. TS 8 6 n^ I'laii of Tijyiin's Basilica at Rome. Scale liiii fl. |o i in. fteciiun ol Inyun's Hasilica. Scale 100 ft. t

CiiAP. IV. BASILICAS. 310 for tlie assessors or others engaged in the business being transacted. \n fiont of the apse was placed an altar, where sacriti(!e wius performed before commencing any important public business.' Externally this basilica could not have been of much magnificence. Jt was entered on the side of the Forum (on the left hand vi' the plan and section) by one triple doorway in the centre and two single ones on each side, covered by shallow porticos of columns of the same height as those used internally. These supported statues, or rather, to judge from the coins representing the building, rilievos, which may have set off, but could hardly have given much dignity to, a building designed as this was. At the end opposite the apse a similar arrangement seems to have prevailed. 1'his mode of using columns only half the height of the building must have been very destructive of their effect, and of geneial gTandeur, but it became about this time rather the rule than the exception, and afterwards was adopted for temples and every other class of buildings, so that it certainly was an improvement when the arch took the ])lace of the horizontal architrave and cornice, which always suggested a roof, and became singularly incongruous when applied as a mere ornamental adjunct. The interior of the basilica was, however, the important element to which the exterior was entirely sacrificed, this transition, which we have before alluded to, taking place much faster in basilicas, which were an entirely new mode of building, than in temples, whose form had become sacred from long tradition. The Basilica of Maxentius, which was probably not entirely finished till the reign of Constantine, was rather broader than that of Trajan, being 195 ft. between the walls, but it was 100 ft. less in length. The central aisle was very nearly of the same width, being 83 ft. between the columns, and 120 ft. in height. There was, however, a vast difference in the construction of the two ; so much so, that we are startled to see how rapid the progress had been during the interval of less than two centuries that had elapsed between the construction of the two basilicas. In this building no pillars are used except 8 great columns in front of the piers, employed merely as ornaments, or as vaulting shafts were in Gothic cathedrals, to support in a2)pearancc, though not in construction, the springing of the vaults. The side aisles are roofed by .'{ great arches, each 72 ft. in span, and the centre by an innnense intersecting vault in 3 compartments. The form of these will be understood from the annexed sections, one taken longitudinally, the other across the building. As will be seen from tlicni, all the thrusts are collected to a point and a buttress placed there ti> receive them: indeed almost all the peculiarities afterwards found in (iothic vaults are here employed on a far grander and more gigantic scale than the Gothic architects ever attempted ; but at the same time it must be ' Tliis bnsilica is e;onerally ruiircsentod ns logy would lead us ratlier to infi'r tliat it was having an apse at either end ; hut there is no not tlie ease. authority whatever tor tliis, and ■jcui lal ana

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320 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. I'...(.K VII. n&n of Basilica of Maxentius. Scale lOU ft. tx) 1 in. L'5X. Longitudinal Section of Basilica of Maxentius. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. a.'i'.). I'ran.svcrso Section of Basilica of Ma.\cntius. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.

C'liAr. IV BASILICAS. 321 allowed that the hitter, with smaller dimensions, often contrived by a more artistic treatment of their materials to obtain as gTand an ott'ect, and far moi'e actnal beauty, than ever were attained in the great transiti(tual halls of the Romans. The largeness of the parts of the Eoman Imildings was indeed their principal defect, as in conseqnence of lliis they must all have looked smaller than they really were, whereas in all (Jothic cathedrals the repetition and smallness of the component pai-ts gives them the appearance of being larger than their leal dimensions. The roofs of these halls had one pecnliarity Avhich it would have been well if the mediaeval architects had coi)ied, inasmuch as they were all honestly used as roofs without the necessity of being covered with others of wood, as all Gothic vaults unfortunately were. It is true this is perhaps one of the causes of their destruction, for, being only covered with cement, the rain wore away the surface, as must be inevitably the case Avitli any composition of the sort expot-:ed horizontally to the weather, and, that being gone, the nudsture soon penetrated through the crevices of the masonry, and the stability of the vault inevitably became impaired. Still some of these have in l\omc resisted for 15 centuries all the accid(,'nt8 of climate and decay, while there is not a Gothic vault of half their dimensions that would exist for a century after the removal of its wooden protection. It therefore still remains a problem for modem times to construct a vault capable of resisting the destructive effects of exposure to the atmosphere. Until this is accomplished we must regard honest wooden roofs as preferable to the false stone ones which were such faA'ourites in the middle ages. The provincial basilicas of the Roman empire have nearly ;ill perished, probably from their having been converted, first into churches, for which they were so admirably adapted, and then rebuilt to suit the exigencies and taste of subsequent ages. One example, however, still exists in Treves of sufficient completeness to give a good idea of what such stnictures were. As will be seen by the annexed plan it consists of a great hall 90 ft. in width inteirially, and as nearly as possible twice that length. The walls are about JOG ft. in height and i)ierced with two rows of windows, but whether they were originally separated by a galler}' or not is now by no means clear. At one end was the aj)se, rather more than a semicircle of 60 ft. in diameter. The floor of the apse was raised considerably above that of the body of the building, and was no doubt adorned by a hemicycle of seats raised on steps, with a throne in the centre for the judge. The building has been used for so many purposes since the time of the Romans, and has been so much altered, that it is not easy Y I. I'laii .■! 111.- ItiUMlic.i .11 Tii'vcs. Seale 100 ft. to 1 in.

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322 ROMAN AKCHITECTURE. i5ooK vn. now to speak with certainty of any of its minor an-angeiuents. lt« iuleiiuil and external appearanee, as it now stands, are weU expi'esscd in the annexed woodcuts ; and, ruined though it appears, it is still *!?' 261. External View of tlie Risiliai at Tifeves. \ \ ■• \' A^l^,.:>;:^^ il 1 1 the most complete example of a Roman basilica to be found anywhci-e out of the capital. A building of tliis descnption has been foxuid at Pompeii, which may be considered a fair example of a provincial basilica of the second class. Its plan is perfectly preserved, as shown in the woodcut. Xo. 2(38. The most striking diti'erence existing between it and those previously described is the square termination instead of the circular ajise. It must however be obsen'ed that Pompeii was situated nearer to Magna Graicia than to Pome, and was indeed far more a (Jreek than a Koman city. Very slight traces of any Etruscan forms have been discovered there, and scarcely any buildings of the circular plan, whicli was so much in vogue in the capital. Though the groundplan of this basilica remains perfect, the upper parts of this building are entirelj' destroyed, and we do iKtt even know for certain whether the central pait was roofed or not ; my o\vn impression is. howevei-. that it certainly was so, 262. Internal View of the UoaiiK-a at I'rfeves.

ClIAl'. IV. BASILICAS— THKATHKW. 323 a ® ^0' and liglitod by ;i clerestory like the cella- of (Jroek temples ; liuwever, it luid no peristyle, it may also have had windows in the upper gallery, and the clerestory windows were probably not countersunk like those ill the (h'cek temples. Tliere is a small square building at Otrieoli, which is generally supposed to be a basilica, but its object as well as its age is so uncertain that nothing need bo said of it here. In the woiks of Vitruvius, too, there is a description of one built by him at Faiio, the restoration of which has occupied the ingenuity of the admirers of that worst of architects. Even taking it as restored by those most willing to make the best of it, it is difficult to understand how anything so bad could have been erected in such as. f an age. 0 ® m I ■ Basilica \ It is extremely difficult to trace the origin of these basilicas, owing principally to the loss of all the earlier examides. Their name is Greek, and they 263. I'Uui of na Till • T 1 11 1 f 1 "' I'omiieii. may probably be considered as the descendants oi the ,scaie looa. to lin. Grecian Lesche, or perhaps as amplifications of the cellte of Greek temples, appropriated to the purposes of justice rather than of religion ; but till we know more of their earlier form and their antecedents, it is useless speculating on this point. The greatest interest to us arises rather from the use to which their plan was afterwards applied than from the source from which they themselves sprang. All the earlier Christian churches were copies, more or less exact, of the basilicas of which that of Trajan is an example. The abundance of pillars, suitable to such an erection, that were found ovcr^-where in Eome, rendered their construction easy and cheap ; and the w^ooden roof with which they were covered was also as simple and as inexpensive a covering as coidd well be designed. The very uses of the Christian basilicas at first were by no means dissimilar to those of their heathen originals, as they were in leality the assembly halls of the early Christian republic, before they became liturgical churches of the catholic hierarchy. The more extensive construction of the bold vaults of the Maxentiau basilica went for beyond the means of the early Church, established in a declining and abandoned capital, and this form therefore remained dormant for 7 or 8 centuries before it was revived by the mediEeval architects on an infinitely smaller scale, but adorned with a degree of taste to which the Ixomans were strangers. It was then used with a completeness and unity which entitle it to be considered as an entirely new style of architecture. Theatres, The theatre was by no means so essential a paii of the economy of a Koman city as it was of a Grecian one. ^^'ith the latter it was quite as indispensable as the temple; ami in the semi-Greek city of llerY 2

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324 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. cnlancum there was one. and in I'ojnpeii two, on a scale

CiiAi". IV. THEATliES— AMI'llI'l'JlKA'J'iniS. ;j25 what wo now see — especially tlio outer arcades — belong to that age, or whether the theatre may not have been rebuilt and these arcades added at some later period. It is so eompletel}- built over by modern houses, and so ruined, that it is extremely difficult to state anything positively about it. Its dimensions were worthy of the capital, the audience part l)oing a semicircle of 410 ft. in diameter, and the scena being of great extent in proportion to the other part, which is a characteristic of all Eoman theatres, as compared with Grecian edifices of this class. One of *he most striking Eoman provincial theatres is that of Orange, in the south of France. Perhaps it owes its existence, or at all events its splendour, to the substratum of Grecian colonists that preceded the Eomans in that country. Its auditorium is o-tO ft. in diameter, but much ruined, in consequence of the princes of Orange having used this part as a bastion in some fortification the}'' were constructing. The stage is very tolerably preserved. It shows well the increased extent and complication of arrangements required for the theatrical representations of the age in which it was constructed, being a considerable advance towaixls the more modem idea of a play, as distinguished frcim the stately semi-religious spectacle in which the Greeks delighted. The noblest part of the building is the great wall at the back, an immense mass of masonry, 340 ft. in extent, and IIG ft. in height, without a single opening above the basement, and no ornament except a range of blank arches, about midway between the basement and the top, and a few projecting corbels to receive the footings of the masts that supported the velarium. Nowhere does the architecture of the Eomans shine so much as when their gigantic buildings ar^e left to tell their own tale by the imposing grandeur of their masses. AVhenever ornament is attempted, their bad taste comes out. The size of their edifices, and the solidity of their construction, were only sui"passed by the Egyptians, and not always by them ; and when, as here, their mass stands unadorned in all its native grandeur, criticism is disarmed, and the spectator stands awe-struck at its majesty, and turns away convinced that truly " there were giants in those days." This is not, it is trixe, the most intellectual way of obtaining architectural effect, but it is the easiest and the most certain to secure the desired result. Amphitheatres. The deficiency of theatres erected by the Romans is far more than compensated by the number and s])lcndour of their amphitheatres, which, with their baths, ma}' be considered as the true types of Eoman art. It seems almost certain that they dei ived this class of public buildings from the Etruscans. At Sutri there is a very noble one cut out of the tufa rock, which was no doubt used by that people for festal representations long before Eomo attempted anything of the kind. It is uncertain whetlier gladiatorial fights or combats of wild beasts formed any part of the amusements of the arena in those days,

326 JfOMAN AHCHrreCTUHK. T^ookVII. tliniijj;li boxiui;". wrostliiip;. and coiitrsts uf tliat ilescrijitidii rcitainly did ; but wlietlior tlie Ktniscan.s actually proceeded to the slicddiug of blood and slaughter is more than doubtful. Even in the remotest parts of Britain, in Germany, and fJaid. wherever we find a l\oman settlement, avo find the traces of their aiiiphitheatres. Their soldiery, it seems, could not exist without the enjoyment of seeing men engage in doubtful and mortal combats — either killing one another, or torn to jiieces by wild beasts. It is not to be Wondered at that a people who delighted so much in the liloody scenes of the arena should feel but very little pleasure in the mimic soitows and tame humour of the stage. It fitted them, it is true, to be a nation of conquerors, and gave them the empire of the world, but it brought with it feelings singularly inimical to all the softer arts, and was perhaps the great cause of their debasement. As might be expected, the hirgcst and most splendid of these buildings is that which adorns the capital ; and of all the ruins which Home contains, none have excited such universal admiration as the Flavian umphithoati-e. Poets, painters, rhapsodists, have exhausted all the resources of their ai-ts in the attempt to conA-e^^ to others the overpowering impiession this Imilding produces on their oaa'u minds. \N'ith the single exception, perhaps, of the Hall at Karnae, no ruin has met with such universal admiration as this. Its association with the ancient mistress of the world, its destruction, and the half-prophetic; destiny ascribed to it, all contribute to this. Still it must be confessed that "The gliuliator.i' Moody cii-cus stands A noble wreck in ruinous perfection," and worthy of all or nearly all the admiiation of which it has been the object. Its interior is almost wholly- devoid of ornament, or anything that can be called architecture — a vast inverted pj'ramid. The exterior does not possess one detail which is not open to criticism, and indeed to positive blame Notwithstanding all this, its mass, its form, and its associations, all conil)ine to produce an cft'ect against which the critic stniggles in vain. Still all must admit that the pilhu's and their entablature are useless and added incongniously, and that the upper story, not being arched like the lower, but solid, and Avith ugly pilasters, is a painful blemish. This last defect is so striking that, in spite of the somcAvhat dul)ious evidence of medals, 1 should feel inclined to suspect that it AA-as a subsequent addition, and meant wholly for the purpose of supporting and Avorking the great A-elarium or aAvning that coA'cred the arena during th(^ representation, Avhich may not have been attem])ted AA-hen the amjihitheatre was first erected. Be this as it may, it certainly noAv mars very much the effect of the building. The loAver stories are of bad design, but this is Avorse. Notwithstanding these defects, there is no building of liome Avhcre the l)rineiple of reduj)li(iition of parts, of which the (Jothic architects afterwards made so jnuch use, is earned to so great an extent as in this. The (_^olosseura is jirincipally indebted to this featuie for the effect Avhich it produces. Had it. for instance, been designed with only

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CiiAP. TV. THE COLOSSEUM. 32^ H one stoiy of the lieig;ht of the 4 now existin*;, jind every aicli ((.usequently as wide as 4 of the present ones, the buikling- wouhl have scarcely a|)})eaic(l half the size it now is seen to be. Jt is true that when close nncler it, in comparing it with figures moving about or other objects, we might eventually have been able to realize its dimensions. In that case, a true sense of the vast size of the building would have had to be acquired, as is the case with the fa(;adc of St. Peter's. Now it forces itself on the mind at the first glance. It is the repetition of arch beyond arch and story on story that leads the mind 266. Elevation and Section of part of the Flavian Amphitheatre at Rome. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. 267. Quarter-plan of the Seats and quarter-plan of the Basement of the Flavian Amphithpalre. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.

328 UOMAN ARCHTTECTUT?E. Hook VTT. on, .111(1 gives to this ainj)liitlieatie its iin]iosii)g grandeur, wliich all aeknoAvk'dgc, though few give themselves tlie trouble to ask how it is produced. Fortunately, too, though the face of the building is much cut iiji by the order, the entablatures are unbroken throughout, and cross the building in long vanisliing lines of the most graceful cui"vatures. Tho oval, also, is certainly more favourable for ettect than a circular form would be. A building of this sha]ie may perhaps look smaller than it really is to a jierson standing exactly opposite either end ; but in all other positions the tlatter side gives a variety and an a]i])eaiance of size which the monotonous equality of a circle would ncAcr produce. The length of the building, measured along its greatest diameter, is (520 ft., its breadth 513, or nearly in the ratio of 6 to 5, which may be taken as the general proportion of these buildings, the variations from it being slight, and apparently either mistakes in setting out the Avork in ancient times, or in measuring it in modern days, rather than an intentional deviation. The height of the 3 lower stories, or what I believe to have been the original building, is 120 ft.; the total height as it now stands 157 ft. The arena itself measures 287 ft. in length Ity 180 in breadth, and it is calculated that the building would contain 80,000 spectators, though I am inclined to think this number exaggerated. 50,000 or 60,000 would be much nearer the ti-uth, at least according to the data by which space is calculated in our theatres and public places. Next in extent to this great metropolitan amphitheatre was that of Capua ; its dimensions were 558 ft. by 460 ; its height extemally 95 feet. It had 3 stories, designed similarly to those of the Colos.seum, but all of the Doric order, and used Avith more purity than in the Eoman example. Next in age, though not in size, is that at Nismes, 430 ft. l)y 378, and 72 in height, in 2 stories. Both these stories are more profusely j-ind more elegantly ornamented Avith ])illars than those of either of tlie amphitheatres mentioned above. The entablature is hoAvever broken over each column, and pediments are introduced on each front. All these arrangements, though shoAving more care in design, and sufficient elegance in detail, make this building very inferior in grandeur to the two earlier edifices, whose simplicity of outline makes up, to a great extent, for their faults of detail. A more beautiful example than this is that at Verona. Its dimensions are 502 ft. by 401, and 98 ft. high, in 3 stories beautifully proportioned. Here the order almost entirely disappears, to make way for rustication, showing that it must be considerably more modem than either of the three examples above quoted, though hardly so late as the time of 31aximiauus, to Avhom it is fiequently ascribed.' The arena of this amphitheatre is very nearly perfect, oAving to the care taken of it during the middle ages, Avhen it was often used for tournaments and ' MattVi, 'Verona Illustrata,' vol. vii. p. 84 ct seq.

Chap. IV. AMrillTIlEATRES. 329 26S. Elevation of Aniphilbcatre at Verona. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. tether .spectacles ; but of its outer arcliitectural enclosure only 4 bays remain, sufficient to enable an architect to restore the whole, but not to allow of its effect being compared with that of more entire exani])les. The amphitheatre at Tola, which is of about the same age as tliat of Verona, certainly belonging to the last days of the Western Empire, presents in its ruin a curious contrast to the other. That at Yerona has a perfect arena, and only a fragment of its exterior decoration, while the exterior of Tola is perfect, but not a trace remains of its arena, or of the seats that sitrrounded it. This is probably owing to their having been of wood, and consequently having either decayed or been burnt. Like that at Verona, it presents all the features of the last stage of transition ; the order is still seen, or rather is everywhere suggested, but so concealed and kept subordinate that it does not at all interfere with the general effect. But for these faint traces we should possess in this am])hitheatre one specimen entirely emancipated from incongnious Grecian forms, but, as before remarked, Eome perished just on the threshold of the new stj'le. The dimensions of the amphitheatre at Pola are very nearly the same as of that at Nismes, being 436 ft. by 346. It has, however, 3 stories, and thus its height is considerably greater, being 97 ft. Owing to the inequality of the ground on which it is built, the lower story shows the peculiarit}' of a sub-basement, which is very pleasingly managed, and seems to emancipate it more from conventional forms than its contemporary at Verona. The third story, or attic, is also more pleasing than elsewhere, as it is avowedly designed for the support of the masts of the velarium. The pilasters and all Greek forms are omitted, and thei'e is only a groove over every column of the middle story to receive the masts. There is also a curioxis sort of open battlement on the top, evidently designed to facilitate the working of the a-oniing, though in what manner is not quite clear. There is still one other peculiarity about the building, inasmuch as the curvature of its lines is broken by 4 projections, intended apparently to contain staircases. They appear, however, to have been subsequent additions, the stones of which they are built being of a different colour from those of the body of the building. In a building so light and open as this one is in its present state there can be no doubt but that the projections give expression and character to the outline, though such additions would go fiir to spoil any of the greater examples above quoted.

330 KOMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VIl. At Otiicoli thoro is a small amphitlicatre, 312 ft. by 230, in 2 stories, from which the onlei- has entirely disappeared ; it is therefore possibly the most modcni of its class, but the gi'eat flat pilasters that replace the i)illars are ungraceful and somewhat clumsy. Perhaps its ]H'culiaritios ought raihor to be looked on as provincialisms than as genuine specimens of an advanced style. Still there is a }tleasing simplicity about it that on a larger scale would enable it to stand comparison with some of its greater rivals. Besides these, which are the typical examples of the style, there are the Castrensc at Home, nearly circular, and possessing all the faults and mnw of the beauties of the Colosseum ; one at Aries, very much ruined ; and a great number of provincial ones, not only in Italy and (Janl, T)ut in Germany and Britain. Almost all these were principally if not wholly excavated from the earth, the part above ground being the momid fojmed by the excavation. If they ever possessed any external decoration to justify their being treated as architectural objects, it has disappeared, so that in the state at least in which we now find them they do not belong to the ornamental class of works of which we are now treating. Baths. Next in splendour to the ami)hitheatres of the Romans were their great thermal establislimcnts. In size they were jierhaps even more rcmarkalile, ami theii- erec-tion must certainly have been more costly. The amphitheatre, however, has the great advantage in an architectural point of view of being one object, one hall in short, whereas the baths were composed of a great number of smaller parts, not perhaps very successfully groTi])ed together. They were wholly built of brick covered with stucco (except perhaps the pillars), and have, therefore, now so completely lost their architectural features that it is with difficulty that even the most practised architect can restore them to anything like their original forms. In speaking of the great Tlicrmai of Imperial Eome, they must not be confounded with such establishments as that of Pompeii for instance. The latter was very similar to the baths now found in Cairo or Constantinople, and indeed in most eastern cities. These are moie establishments for the convenience of bathers, consisting generally of one or two small circular or octagonal halls, covered by domes, and one or two others of an oblong shape, covered with vaults or wooden roofs, used as reception rooms, or places of repose after the bath. These have never any exteraal magnificence beyond an entrance-porch ; and although those at Pompeii are decorated internally with taste, and are well worthy of study, their smallness of size and inferiority of design do not admit of their being placed in the same category as those of the capital, which arc as characteristic of h'ome as her amphitheatres, and are such as could only exist in a capital where the bulk of the ])eople were able to live on the spoils of the conquered world rather than by the honest gains of their own industrs'. Agrippa is said to have built baths immediately behind the Pan

r'liAP. IV. BATHS. ;5:n tluMiii, and T'alliulid and otiiois liavo aiinised llll•lnselve^^ hy restoring them, assuming" that 1 mi Ming to have been the entranee-hall. Nothing, however, conkl, I believe, be more unfoinided than such an assumption, and no ruins exist sufficiently perfect to enable us to ascertain the exact site of these baths, if indeed they ever existed at all in this situation. Nero's baths, too, are a mere heap of shapeless ruins, and those of \'espasian, Domitian, and Trajan in like manner are too much ruined foi' their form, or even their dimensions, to be ascertained with anything like correctness. Those of Titus are more perfect, but the very discrepancies that exist between the different systems upon which their restoration has been attempted show that enough does not remain to enable the task to bo acco]n])lished in a satisfactory manner. They owe their interest more to the beautiful fresco paintings that adoni their vaults than to their architectural character. These paintings are invaluable, as being almost the only relics of the painted decoration of the most flourishing period of the Empire, and give a higher idea of Roman art than other indications would lead us to expect. The baths of Constantino are also nearly wholly destroyed, so that out of the great Thermae two only, those of Diocletian and of Caracalla, now remain sufficiently perfect to enable a restoration to be made of them with anything like certainty. The great hall belonging to the baths of Diocletian is now the Church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli, and has been considerably altered to suit the altered circumstances of its use ; and the modem buildings attached to the church ha^•e so overlaid the older remains that it is not easy to follow out the complete plan. This is of less consequence, as both in dimensions and plan they are exti'emely similar to those of Caracalla, which seem to have been among the most magnificent, as they certainly are the best preserved, of these establishments.' The general plan of the whole enclosure of the baths of Diocletian was a square of about 1 1 50 ft. each way, with a bold but graceful curvilinear projection on two sides, containing porticos, gymnasia, lecturerooms, and other halls for exercise of mind or body. In the rear were the j-eservoirs to contain the requisite supply of water, and below them the hj-pocaust or furnace, by which it was warmed with a degree of scientific skill we hardly give credit for to the Romans of that age. Opposite to this and facing the street was one great portico extending the whole length of the building, into which opened a range of apartments meant apparently to be used as pi-ivate baths, which extend also some way up each side. In front of the hypocaust, facing the northeast, was a semicircus or theatridiiim, 530 ft. long, where youths performed their exercises or contended for prizes. These parts were, however, merely the accessories of the establish' These baths have been carefully iiiea- certainly the best account we have of any of sured by M. IMouet, who Juis also jjublisliod these establishments, a restoration of them. This is, on the whole,

332 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. meut isunonnding the jijardon, in wliich the p7inci]ial huildinf:; was placed. This was a reetangle 730 ft. by 380, witli a i)rojectiuu euvered by a dome on the south-western side, Avhich was 167 ft. in diameter extemally, and 1 1 o ft. internally. There were two small courts (a a) included in the block, but the whole of the rest appears to have laeen roofed over, and though, therefore, with about the same dimensions, it virtually covered far more ground, and, looking at the size and grandeur of the parts, it was a building on a far more magnificent scale than our new Houses of Parliament. 269. Baths of ftocletiau, as restored by A. Blouet. In the centre was a great hall (b), almost identical in dimensions with the central aisle of the Basilica of Maxcntius already described, being 82 ft. wide by 170 in length, and roofed in the same manner by an intersecting vault in three compartments, sjjringing from 8 great pillars. This opened into a smaller apartment at each end, of rectangular form, and then again into 2 other semicircular halls, fonning a i-plendid suite 4C}0 ft. in length. This central room is generally considered as the tepidirinm, or warmed apartments, having 4 warm baths opening out of it. On the north-ea.st side was the natatio, or plunge bath (c), probably tejjid, a room of nearly the same dimensions and design as the central one. On the side f»])posite to this was the circular apartment (d), covered by the dome abovi- mentioned, Avhieh. from its situation and the openness of its an-angements, must have contained a cold bath or baths. There ai e

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CnAi>. IV. BATHS. 333 4 otlicr rooms on this side, wliieli seem also to have been cold batlis. None of these points have, however, yet been satisfactorily settled, nor the nses of the smaller subordinate rooms ; every restorer giving them names according to his own ideas. For onr purjiose it suffices to know that no groups of state apailmcnts in such dimensions, and wholly devoted to purj)oses of dis])lay and recreation, were ever before or since grouped together under one roof. The taste of many of the decorations would no doubt be faulty, and the architecture shows those incongruities inscpaial)le from its state of transition ; but such a collection of stately halls must have made up a Avhole of greater splendour than Ave can easily realize from their bare and Aveather-beaten ruins, or from anything else to which we can compare them. Even allowing for their being almost wholly of brick, and being disfigured by the bad taste inseparable from everything Koman, there is nothing in the worhl Avhich for size and grandeur can compare with these imperial places of recreation.' ' St. George's Hall at Liverpool is the cnJ, it makes up a suite of apartments very most exact copy in modern times of a part similar to those found in the Roman examples, of these Baths. The Hall itself is a repro- The whole building, however, is less tliaii duction both in scale and design of the central one-fourth of the size of the central mass ot' a hall of Caracalla's Baths, but improved in Roman bath, and therefore gives l)ut little detail and design, having five bays instead idea of the magnificence of the whole, of only three. With the two courts at each

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oo4 KOMAX AKCHITECTURK. Book VI 1. CHAPTER V. TKIUMPHAL AliCHES, TOMBS, AND OTIIEK BUILDINGS. CONTENTS. Ai-clies at Rome ; in Fi-iince — Arch at Treves — Pillai-s of Victory — Tnmh.s — Minerva Medica — Provincial tombs — Eiustern tombs — Domestic arcliitecture — Spalatro — Pompeii — Bridges — Aqueducts. Triumphal arclieK were among the most peculiar of the various funus nf art whicli the Komans borrowed fi-om those around them, and used with that strange mixture of splendour and bad taste which characterises all their works. These were in the first instance no doubt borrowed from the Etruscans, as was also the ceremony of the triumph with which they were ultimately associated. At first they seem rather to have l)een used a« festal entrances to the great public roads, whose coustructi(»n was con• sidered as one of the most important benefits a ruler could confer on his country. There was one erected at liimini in honour of an imjKirtant restoration of the Flamiuian Way 1>v Augustus; another at 8usa in I'iedmont, to commemorate a similar act of the same Em]K'ror. Trajan built one on the pier at Ancona, when he restored that harbour, and another at Beneventum, when he repaired the Via Api>ia, represented in the woodcut here given (No. 270). It is one ol the best preserved as well as most graceful ( f its class in Daly. The arch 270. Arch of Trfljan at lienevenliiin. From a plate in Gailabaud's Architecture.

Chai'. V. TRIUMPH AL AKCJIiKS. .'335 271. Arch of Titus at, Home. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. uf the Sergii at Tola in Istria seems also to have been ereeted Tor a liktpvirjiose. That of Hadrian at Athens, and another built by him at Antin< »e in Ki;ypt, were monuments merely commemorative of the benefits whith he had conferred on those cities by the arehiteetnral works he had erected within their walls. By far the most im])ortaiit ap|)lication of these gateways, in Kome at least, was to commemorate a trium})li which may have passed along the road ovei- which the arch was erected, and perhaps in some instances it may have been erected beforehand, for the triumphal procession to pass through, of which it would remain a menu)rial. The Arch of Titus at Kome is well known for the beauty of its detail, as well as from the extraordinary interest which it derives from having been erected to commemorate the conquest of Jerusalem, and consecpiently representing in its bassi-rilievi the spoils of the Temple. From the annexed elevation, drawn to the usual scale, it will be seen that the building is not large, and it is not so well proportioned as that at Beneventum, represented in the last woodcut, the attic being overpoweringly high. The absence of sculpture on each side of the arch is also a defect, for the real merit of these buildings is their being used as frameworks for the exhibition of sculptural representations of the deeds they weie erected to commemorate. In the later days of the Empii'e 2 side-arches were added for footpassengers, in addition to the carriage-way in the centre. This added much to the splendour of the edifice, and gave a greater opportunity for sculptui'al decoration than the single arch afforded. The Arch of Septimius Severus, represented to the same scale in woodcut Ko. 272, is perhaps the best specimen of the class. That of Constantine is very similar and in most respects equal to this — a merit which it owes to most of its sculptures being borrowed from earlier monuments. More splendid than either of these is tlie arch at Orange. We do not know by whom it was erected, or even in what age : it is, however, certainly very late in the Koman period, and shows a strong tendency to treat the order as entirely subordinate, and to exalt the plain masses into that importance which characterises the late transitional period. Unfortunately its scidptures are so much destroyed by time and violence that it is not easy to speak with cei-taiuty as to their age ; but more misht be done than has hitheiio been effected to illustrate this important monument. At Eheims there is an arch which was probably much more magnificent than this. "When in a [)erfect state it was 1 10 ff. in width, and 272. Arch of Septimiiis Severus. Scale 50 ft. to 1 ill.

336 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. had 3 oponini:^s, the cn-ntral one 17ft. \\'i>\v by 40 ft. liip;li, ami those on eacli side l»» ft. in Midtli, euch separated b}- 2 Corinthian cuUnuns. From tho styh> of the .sculpture it certainly was of the last age of the Roman Empire, but, having been built into the walls of the city, has been so much iixmed that it is difficult to say what its original form may have been. Besides these there is in France a very elegant single-arched gateway at St. liemi, similar to and probably of the same age as that at Beneventum ; another at Cavallon, and one at Carpentras, each with one arch. There is also one Avith two similar arches at Langres ; and one, the Porta Nigra, at Besan^'on, wliieh shows so complete a transition from the Koman style that it is difficult to believe that it does not belong to the renaissance. There still remains in France another class of arches, certainly not trimnphal, but so similar to those just mentioned that it is impossible to sei)anite the one from the other. The most important of these are two at Autun, called respectively the Porte Aitoux and the Porte St. Andre, a view of which is given in woodcut No. L'71. Each of these TS»^ T^^ ;^^ 'JP^..- ;Porte St. Aiidrd at Autun. From Labonie'g Monumens di- 1:> l-'rniice. has two central large archways for cairiages, and one on each side for foot-passengers. Their most remarkable peculiarity is the light arcade

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Chap. V. GATES. 337 274. Plan of Porta Nigra at Trevps. Scale, 100 ft. to 1 ill. Even more intoresting; than these gates at Autuii is tliat called the Porta Nigra at Treves; lur though fur ruder hi style and coarser in detiiil, iis might be expected from tlic re- , moteness of the province where it is tonnd, j^ it is far more complete. Indeed it is the only example of its class which we possess in anything like its original state. Its front consists of a donhle archway snrnioinited by an arcaded gallery, like the Fiench examples. AMthin this is a rectangular court Avhicli seems never to have been roofed, and beyond this a second doTible archway similar to the first. At the ends of the court, projecting each way beyond the fac;c of the gateway and the gallery surmoiniting it, are 2 wings 4 stories in height, containing a series of a]iartnionts in the fonu of small basilicas, all similar -^- j ■■■■jx to one another, and __ -.-*,_ k/--' measuring about 55 ~-;:^jCZL>- ■ --^-^^=-*^^^~ ft. by 22. It is not easy to understand how these were a})proachcd, as there is no stair and no place for one. Of course there must have been some mode of access, and perhaps it may have Ijcen on the site of the apse, shown in the })lan (woodcut 275. K 0.274), which was added when the building was converted into a chuieh in the middle ages. These apartments were probably originally used as courts or chambers of justice, thus realising, more nearly than any other European example I am acquainted with, the idea of a gate of justice. Notwithstanding its defects of detail, there is a variety in the outline of this building and a boldness of profile that render it an extremely pleasing example of the style ; and though exhibiting many of the faults of the desig-n of the Colosseum, it possesses all that repetition of parts and Gothic feeling of design Avhich give such value to its dimensions, though these are far from contemptible, the building being 1 1 5 ft. wide by 95 in height to the top of the wings. There probably w^ere many similar gates of justice in the province, but all have perished, unless we except those at Autmi just described. I am convinced that at that place there were originally such wings as those at Treves, and that the small church, the apse of which is seen on the right hand (woodcut 273), stands upon the foundations of one of these. A slight excavation on the opposite side would settle this z View of the Porta Nigra at Trfeves.

338 liOMAX ARCHITECTURE. I'.OOK VU. point at once. If it coulil ho proved that these pjateways at Antiin had such hatoral adjuncts, it would at once exphiin the use of the gallery over the arch, as a passage connecting the 2 wings together, which otherwise looks so unmeaning. Another fonn also is that of an arch at the entrance of a bridge, generally hearing an inscription coinnieniorative c)f its building. Its purpose is thus closely connected with that i)f the arches before mentiitncd, which commemorate the execution of roads. Most of the great bridges of Italy and Spain were so adorned ; but imfoiiunately thej' have either been used as fortifications in the middle ages, or removed in raodeiTi times to make Avay for the increased circulation of traffic. That built by Trajan on his noble bridge at Alcantara in Spain is well known ; and there exists a double-arched bridge at Saintes, in the south of France. The most elegant and most perfect specimen, however, of this class is that of St. Chamas in Provence, represented in the woodcut Ko. 276. It consists of 2 arches, one at each end of the bridge, of 27t>. Bridge at Chamas. From Lubui'de's Monunn'ns de la Kraiice. singular elegance of form and detail. Although it bears a still legible inscription, it is micertain to what age it belongs, ])robably that of tJie Autonincs ; and I should account for the })urity of its details by the Greek element that pei-vades the south of France, ^\'hetller this is so or not, it is impossible not to admire not only the design of the whole bridge with its 2 arches, but the elegance with which the deta.ils have been executed. — Used in this mode as commencements of roads, or entrances to bridges, or as festal entrances to unfoiiified towns, there are perhaps no monuments of the second class more ap])ropriate or more capable of architectural ex]iression than these arches, though all of them have been more or less spoiled by an incongiuous order being applied to tluiin. Used, however, as they were in Rome, as monuments of victory, with4

Chap. V. IMIJARS OF VICTORY. :«0 out oven ;m excuse for a pass!\c;e Iln'(iiia;li tliein, not only i.s tln.^ taste of such erections more than (picstionablo, but tlic mode in wliicli tliey were cut up hy broken cornices anil Tiseless columns, on tall pedestals and otlier trivial details, deprived them of that largeness of design which is the true merit and groat characteristic of Konian art, while they totally missed that exquisite elegance with which the Cjijceks knew so well how to dignify even the most trivial objects. Pillars oi-' Victory. The pillars of Victory are a class of monuments which have been already mentioned in speaking of Buddhist architecture, and to which we must again revert when treating of the .Sai'acenic art, for they seem to have been adopted by Romans and Moslems whenever they settled in coimtries where the}^ had been used by the earlier inhabitants. No people ever used them so clumsily as the Eomans, or with so little true appreciation of the purpose for which they were designed. The " Columna liostrata," or that erected to celebrate naval victories, was, so far as we can judge from representations (for no perfect specimen exists), one of the ugliest and clumsiest forms of pillar it is possible to conceive. Of those of Victory, one of the most celebrated is that erected by Diocletian at Alexandria. A somewhat similar one exists at Arsinoe, erected b}^ Alexander Severus ; and a third at Mylassa in Caria. All these are- mere Corinthian pillars of the usual foi-m, and with the details of those used to support entablatures in porticos. However beautiful those may be in their proper place, they are singularly unappropriati; and ungraceful when used as minarets or single columns. There are two in Eome not quite so bad as these, both being of the Doric order. Had the square abacus in these been cut to a round form, and ornamented with an appropriate railing, we might almost forget theii" original, and fancy that they really were round towers with balconies at the top. The great object of their erection was to serve as vehicles for sculpture, though, as we now see them, or as they are caricatured at Paris and elsewhere, they are little more than instances of immense labour bestowed to very little pm-pose. In the original use of these pillars they were placed in small courts surrounded by open porticos, whence the spectator could at two or perhaps at three different levels examine the sculpture at his leisure and at a convenient distance, while the absurdity of the pillar supjxtrting nothing Avas not apparent, fi'om its not being seen from the outside. This arrangement is explained in woodcut No. 256, which is a section thi'ough the basilica of Trajan, showing the position of his column, not only with reference to that building, but to the surrounding colonnadi^ The same was almost certainly the case with the pillar of Marcus Aurolius, wiiioh, with slight modifications, seems to have been copied from that of Trajan ; but even in the most favourable situations no momnnents can be less Avorthy

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;}40 RO^IAN AHCIIITECTUHE. Book VII. A far better spc^cinii-ii ''''":''''277. Column at C'ussi. From Laborde's ]Monumens de la France. Supposed Capital ut ('uluMin at Cussi. ' Compare woodcut No. 77.

Chap. V. 'J'OMliS. .•541 ^ ..m^^j,'l^i:^>!?, gouerally ;issuiuetl, tlicv arc the only puoj)lc ui that liieu among whom toiub-hiiihling was not utterly neglected. The iinj)ortanco of the toml)s among the Eoman remahis proves one of two things. Either a consiilerable proportion of Etruscan blood was mixed np with that of the dominant race in Kome, or the fierce and nncivilized I'omans, having no art of their own, were led blindly to copy that of the people among whom they were located. Of tlie tombs of Consular l^)me nothing remains except perhaps the sarco])hagns of Scipio ; and it is only on the eve of the Emi)ire that Ave meet with the well-known one of Ca3eilia Metella, the wife of Crassus, which is not only the best specimen of a Roman tomb now remaining to us, but the oldest building of the imperial city of which we have an authentic date. It consists of a bold scpiare basement about 100 ft. square,' which was originally ornamented in some manner not now intelligible. From this rose a circular tower about 9-4 ft. in diameter, of very bold masonry, surmounted by a frieze of oxskulls with wreaths joming them, and a Avell-profiled cornice : 2 or 3 courses of masonry above this seem to have belonged to the original work ; and above this, almost certainly, in the original design rose a conical roof, which has perished. The tower having been used as a fortress in the middle ages, battlements have been added to supply the place of the roof, and it has been otherwise disfigured, so as to detract much ft-om its beauty as now seen. Still we have no tomb of the same importance so perfect, nor one which enables us to connect the Koman tombs so nearly with the Etruscan. The oidy addition in this instance is that of the square basement oi' ])o(liuni, though even this was not unknown at a much earlier period, as for instance in the tomb of Aruns (woodcut No. 2:57). The exaggerated height (jf the circulaibase is also remarkable. Here it rises to be a tower instead of a mere circular base of stones for the earthen cone of the original se})xdchre. Tlie stone roof which probably surmounted the tower was a mere reproduction of the oiiginal earthen cone. Kext in age and importance was the tomb c>f Augustus in the Campus Martins. It is now so completely ruined that it is extremely difficult to make out its plan, and those aaIio drew and restored it in former days were so careless in their measurement that it is difficult to ascertain even its dimensions : it appears however to have consisted of a circular basement about 300 ft. in diameter, and about (10 ft. in 279. 'I'omb uf Cfccilia Metella. ' I :im cilicnKly iiiat-itaiu about tliu diiucnsions of this liuililiiig : these are llie Ijc^t I au liiul.

;j42 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. lieight, adonied with 12 large niches, Ahovo this rose a cone of earth as iu the Etruscan tombs, not smooth like those, hut divided into terraces, which were planted with trees. ^Ve also leara from Suetonius that Augustus laid out the grounds around his tomb and ]tlanted theiu with gardens for public use during his lifetime. More like the practice of a tnie Mogid in the East than the niler of an ludo-Germanic people in Europe. This tomb, however, was far surpassed, not only in solidity but in splendour, by that which Hadrian erected for himself on the banks of the Tiber, now known as the Mole of lladiian, or more freqxiently the Castle of St. Angelo. The basement of this great tomb was a square about 340 ft. each way, and about 75 ft. high. Above this rose a circular tower 235 ft. in diameter and 140 in height. The whole was crowned probabl}^ by a dome, or at least by a curvilinear roof, which with its central ornament must have risen to a height of not less than oOO ft. The circular or tower-like part of this splendid building was ornamented with columns, but in what manner restorei'S have not quite been able to agree ; some making 2 stories, both with pillars, some, one of pillars and the upper one of pilasters. It would require more correct measurement than we have to enable us to settle this point, but it seems probable that there was only one range of columns on a circular basement of some height surmounted by an attic of at least equal dimensions. The order might have been 70 ft., the base and attic 38 ft. each. JnteiTially the mass was nearly solid, having only 2 small sepulchral chambers, one above the other, in the centre. There may, however, have been a circular apartment under the dome, though this is hai'dly probable. Besides these there was another class of tombs in Eome, called columbaria, generally oblong or square rooms below the level of the 2-so. ColunilKirium near tlie (.ial^' . Mb.isiiaii, lii.ii gr round, the walls of which were pierced with a great number of little ]ugoonhol("s or cells just of sufficient size to receive an um containing the aslies of the body, which had been bunit according to the usual Koman mode of disposing of the dead. Externally of course they had

(.'UAP. V. TOMBS. 34.3 no architcctiu-e, though some of tlie moi'o important family bepulchrcs of this class were adorned internally with pilasters and painted onianients of considerable hoauty. In the earlier ages of the Eoman empire these two fonns of tombs characterised with sufficient clearness the two races, each with their distinctive customs, which made up the population of Eome. Long before its expiration the two were fused together so thoroughly that we lose all trace of the distinction, and a new form of tomb arose compounded of the two older, which became the typical form Avith the early Chiistians, and from them passed to the Saracens and otlier eastern nations. The new form of tomb retained externally the circular fonn of the Telasgic sepulchre, though constructive necessities afterwards caused it to become polygonal. Instead however of being solid, or nearly so, the walls were only so thick as Avere necessary to support the dome, ^vhich became the imiversal form of roof of these buildings. The sepulchres of Eome have as yet been far too carelessly examined to enable us to trace all the stej^s by which the transformation took place, but as a general rule it may be stated that the gradual enlargement of the central circular apartment is almost a certain test of the age of a tomb : till at last, before the age of Constantino, they became in fact representations of the Pantheon on a small scale, almost always with a crypt or circular vault below the principal apartment. One of the most curious transitional specimens is that found near San Vito, represented in the woodcut No. 281. Here, as in all the earlier specimens, the principal apartment is the lower in the square basement. The upper, which has lost its decoi-ation, has the appearance of being hollowed out of the frustum of a gigantic Doric column, or rather out of a solid tower like the central one of ^ the tomb of Anins (woodcut . No. 237). Shortly after the } age of this sepulchre the lower apartment became a mere crypt, and in such examples as those of the sepulchfcs (jf the Cornelia and Tossia families we have merely miniature Pantheons somewhat taller in proportion, and with a crypt. This is still more remarkable in a building called the Torre dei Schiavi, which has had a portico attached to one side, and in other respects looks very like a direct imitation of that celebrated temple. It seems certainly, however, to have been built for a tomb. 2S1. Secliuu of Sopulclirc at Sail Vito. No scale.

344 IU)MAN AJ{CH1TECTUI?E. Rook VII. Another tomb, very similar to that of tlie Tossia family, is called that of Sta. Helena, the mother of C'oustantine. If not liors, at lejist it belongs to the last days of the Empire, and may be taken as a fair specimen of the toml)s of tho age and of the class. It is a vast transition fiom that of Ca'cilia 3Ietclla, though in the same direction as all. the changes intiodneed by the Komans, the tendency of which was constantly transfonning an external into an internal architecture. 2X2. Section and Elevation of Tomb of Sta. Helena, Rome. No scale. It consists of abasement about 100 ft. square, containing the crypts. On this stands a circular tower in two stories. In the lower story is a circular apartment about OG ft. in diameter, surrounded l»y 8 niches ; in the upper the niches are external, and each pierced with a window. Its dimensions being nearly the same as those of the tomb of Cecilia ^letella, it affords an excellent opportunity of comparing the two extremes of the series, and of contrasting the early Eoman with the earl^' Christian tomb. The tyjiical example of a sepulchre (jf this age is the tomb or baptistery of Sta. Costanza, the daughter of ( Vmstantine. In this building the ])illars that adorned the exterior of such a mausoleum, for instance, as that of Hadrian, are introduced internally. Externally the building never can have had much ornament. But the breaks between the lower aisle and the central compartment, pierced Avith the clerestory, must have had a very pleasing effect — more so at all events than the clumsy attempts that were made at this age to adorn buildings by illunderstood applications of the Grecian orders. In this exami»le theie is still shown a certain degree of timidity, which does not aftenvards reappear. The coUnnns are coupled and fiir more numerous than they need have been, and they are united by a fragment of an ent;d)laturc, as if the architect \yere afraid to place his vaiilt direct on the capitals. Still, notwithstanding these defects, it is a pleasing and singularly instructive example of a completed transformation, just what we miss in those seculai- buildings for which the Christians had no use. Another Ijuilding, which now goes by the name of the r)ai)ti.stery oi Constantine, was also undoubtedly a place of sepulture, though whether it is rightly ascribed to Constantine. and was intended by him

CllAl'. V. TOMHS. 34; for his own toml», may bo questioned. Ilore tlie rout ml aparhucnt, never having; been intended to support a dome, is of a far lighter construction, an upper order of piUars heing phxced on the lower, with merely a light architrave and frieze riuniing hetween the two (uders. The external walls were slight in conslruction and octagonal in plan. We must not in this i)lace jmrsue any further the subject of the transition of style, as we have already trespassed within the pale of (Christian architecture and passed beyond the limits of heathen art. So gradual is the change, and so long jirepared, that it is impossible to diaw the line exactly where the separation takes place betw^een the one and the other. Temple of Minerva Medica. One important building remains to be mentioned before leaving this part of the subject. It commonly goes by the name of the Temple of Minerva Medica, though this is certainly a misnomer, Keccntly it has become the fashion to assume that it was the hall of some bath ; no building of that class, however, was known to exist in the neighbourhood, and it is extremely improbable that any should be found outside the Servian walls in this direction; besides that it wants all the necessary accompaniments of such an establishment. I have placed it with the tombs because its site is one that would justify such a supposition, and its foi-m is just such as would be applicable to that purpose and to no other. I by no means wish to insist positively on this opinion, but I know of no more probable supposition. It certainly belongs to the last days of the Empire atEome, if indeed it be not a Cbristian building, which I am very much inclined to believe it is, for, on comparing it with the Baptistery of Constantino and the tomb of Sta. Costanza, it shows a considerable adA'ance in construction on both these buildings, and a gTcater similarity to San A^itale at liavcnna, and other buildings of Justinian's time, than to anything else now found in Rome, As will be seen from the plan and section (woodcuts Nos. 283 and 284), it has a dome, 80 ft. in diameter, resting on a decagon of singularly light and elegant construction. Nine of the compartments contain niches Avhich give great room on the floor, as well as great variety and to the lightness general desicCU. -^■^- ^''''"' "^ -^liiicrva Jlcdici at Rome. From Tsiilu'lles EdiBces CiicuUiircs. Sciile, 100 It. to 1 in. is a Above this clerestory of 10 well-p)(>iiortioued whidow.s, wliieli gi\i perhajis not in so eftective a maimer as the one ev( bnilding, ighf III ilic >f lllc

34G IJOMAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VII. & 284. Section of Minerva Medic-a. Scale, 50 ft. to 1 in. r.aiitlioon, l)ut l)y a far more convenient arrangement to keep out the elements fur a people avIvo did not possess glass. So far as I know, all the domed buildings erected by the Eomans np to the time of Constautine, and indeed long afterAvards, were circular in the interior, though, like the temple built by Diocletian at ISpalatro, they were sometimes octagonal extenially. This, however, is a polj'gou both internally and on the outside, and the mode in which the dome is placed on the polygon shows the first rudiments of the pendentiA^e system, which was afterwards carried to such perfection by the Byzantine ar(;hitects, but is noAvhcro else to be found in Kome. It probably was for the ptu'pose of somewhat diminishing the difficulties of this eonstniction that the architect adopted a figxire Avith 10 instead of 8 sides. This, too, is, I believe, the first building in Avhich buttresses are applied so as to give strength to the walls exactly at the point where it is most wanted, liy this invention the architect Avas enabled to dispense with nearly one half of the amount of materials that AVas thought necessaiy Avhen tlie dome of the Pantheon was constmcted, and Avhich he must have employed had he copied that building. Besides this the dome Avas ribbed Avith tiles, as shown in Avoodcut No. 285, and the space betAA-^een the ribs filled in Avith inferior, perhaps lighter masonry, banded together at certain heights by horizontal courses of tiles when necessary. Besides the lightness and variety Avhich the base of this building derives from the niches, it is 10 ft. higher than its diameter, which gives to it that proportion of height to width, the want of which is the piineipal defect of the I'antheon. It is not knoA\ni what the side erections are Avhich are usually shovATi in the ground-plans, nor even Avhether they arc coeval Avith the main central edifice. 1 suspect they have never been veiy correctly laid doAvn. Taking it altogether, the building is ceiiainly, both as concerns construction and proportion, by far the most scientific of all those in ancient Kome, and in these respects as far superior to the Tantheon as it is inferior to that temple in size. Indeed there are few inventions of the middle ages that are not attempted here or in the Temple of •iS5. lUb of tbe Hoof of the Jlinerva Mtdica at Iloino.

Chap. V. TOMBS. 347 Peace — but move In tliis than in thu latter ; so much so, iiulecd, that I cannot help believing that it is much more motleni than is generally sui)posetl. As might bo expected from oiir knowledge of the races that inhabited the European provinces of the Koman empiie, there are very few specimens of tombs of any importance to be found in them. One very beautiful example exists at St. llemi, represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 286). It probably, however, can hardly be called a tomb, but rather a cenotaph or a monument, erected, as the inscription on it tells us, by Sextus and Marcus, of the family of the Julii, to their paI'ents, whoso statues appear under the dome of the upper stoiy. There is nothing funereal either in the inscription or the foiTQ, nor anything to lead us to suppose that the bodies of the i)arents repose beneath its foimdation. The lower portion of this monument is the square basement which the Eomans always added to the Etruscan fonn 'of tomb. Upon this stands a story pierced with an archway in each face, with a 3-quarter pillar of the Corinthian order at every angle. The highest part is a circular colonnade, a miniature copy of that which we know to have once encircled liadi-ian's Mole. The open arrangement of the arches and colonnade, while it takes off considerably from the tomb-like simplicity becoming such buildings, adds very much to the lightness and elegance. Altogether the buildinghas much more of the aspiring character of Christian art than of the more solid and horizontal forms which were characteristic of the style then dying out. Another monument of very singular and exceptional form is found at Tgel, near Treves, in Germany. It is so milike anything found in Italy, or indeed anything of the lioman age, that, were its date not perfectly known from the inscription upon it, one might rather be inclined to ascribe it to the age of Francis I. than to the latter days of the lioman Empire. The form is graceful, though the pilasters and architectural ornaments seem somewhat misplaced. It is covered with sculpture from top to bottom. These, however, as is generally the case with Roman funeral monuments, have no reference to death, nor to the life or actions of the person to whom the monument is sacred, but are more 2s6. Tomb at St. Re'mi. From Laborde's Monumcns de la France.

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348 ROMAN AllCHITECTUKE. Book VII. like flic scenes that m'v^H Ix- painted on a \vall or ornamental stele anywhere. The principal object iji 1lie iace represented in the woodcut is the sun, but the subjects ai'c varied in each face, and, though much time-worn, they still give a very perfect idea of the rich onianicntation of the nionumerits of the last age of the Empire. Eastern Tomhs. -~? J"/. .. This scarcity of tombs in the western ])art of the Iioman enipire is to a great extent made up for, in the east. The histoiy of the tombs erected mider the lioniau rule in that part of the world is as yet so little known that it is not easy either to classify or to describe them; and as nearly all those which have been preserved are cut in the rock, it is sometimes difficult— as with other rock-cut objects all over the world — to understand the form of building from whicli they were copied. The 3 principal groups of the tombs of the lioman epoch are those of Petra, Cyrene, and Jcnisalcm. TlKmgh many other imjiortant tombs exist in those countries, they are so little known that they must be passed over for the pi-esent. From the time when Abraham was laid in the cave of IMaclqielah until after the Christian era, we know that burying in the rock was not the exception but the general practice among the nations of this part of the East. So far as can be known, the exani]ile was set by Egyj^t, which was the parent of nmcli of their civilization. In Egy])t the facades of their rock-cut tombs were — with the solitary exception of those of P)eni Hassan' — oniamentcd so simply and unobtrusively as rather to belie than to announce their internal magnificence. All Ihe oldest Asiatic tombs seem to have been mere ■i«7. Monument at igci.near'^s. ^'^les in the rock, wholly without architectural From Schmidt's Antiquities of dcCOrations. Wo have seen, however, how the Persian kings copied their palace facades to adorn their last resting-places, and how about the same time in Lycia the tomb-cutters copied, first their own wooden structures, and afterwards the architectinal facades, which tliev had learned from the (ireeks how to construct. P.ut it was not Stf ]'. 2'JO, and woodcut ItU.

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Chap. Y TOMnS. 349 till the liOiiKui jJciicKl lluit this sjK'eies of luaj^'iiificcnce extended to the places eiiiinierated above. To such an extent did it ]irevail at Petra as to give to that now deserted -valley the appearance of a ]i(tiified city of the dead. .'W"^ mm ■!)<<. kliasne.="" from="" laboide="" ivlra="" ami="" muuiil="" siiuii.="" the="" typical="" and="" most="" beautiful="" tond="" of="" this="" jdace="" is="" that="" called="" khasne="" or="" treasury="" pharaoh="" represented="" in="" elevation="" section="" annexed="" woodcuts.="" as="" will="" be="" seen="" it="" consists="" a="" square="" basement="" adorned="" with="" portico="" very="" corinthian="" pillars="" sunnounted="" by="" pediment="" h="" grecian="" pitch.="" above="">

350 ROMAN architecturp:. Book VIT. aro '{ very siuL;nliir turi-ots, whose use and application it is extremely difiiciilt to uiulcrstand. The central one is circnlar, and is a wellunderstood sepulchral form, the use of which, if it had been more „^,..^\ important, or if it stood alone, would be intclli

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Va\m\ V TOMBS. .351 h a

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352 ROMAN ARCITITErTURE. Hook VII. oxcf'pt the n]ii)aTent alisciice of a tludv, and altogetlu-v it seems, if finislied, to deserve its name less tlian either of the other two. Perhaps the most singular object among these tombs is the flat fafi-ade with ;J stories of pillars one over the other — slightly indieated in the left of the Corinthian tond) in the last wocxleut (No. 290). It is like the proseenium t)f some of the more recent Gieek theatres. If it was n-ally the frontispiece to a tomb, it was totally unsuitable to the purpose, and is certainly one of the most complete misapplications of Greek architecture ever made. Generally speaking, the interiors of these buildings arc so plain that travellers have not cared either to draw or measure them ; one, however, represented in the annexed woodcut, is richly ornamented. 29!. Rock-cut interior at Petru. From Ijaborde's Sinai, p. 198. and, as far as can be jiidged from what is published, is as unlike a tomb as it is like a vihiru. But, as before remarked, they all require re-examination before the purpose for which they were cut can be pronounced upon with any ceiiainty. The next grou]i of tombs is that at Jerusalem. These are undoubtedly all sepulchres. By far the greater number of them are wholly devoid of architectural ornament. To the north of the city is a group known as the tombs of the kings, with a facade of a corrupt Doric order, similar to some of the latest Etruscan tombs,' It is now ' M. (le SauUy has recently attempted to Christian era, and the slab, which lie calls prove that tliesi- tombs are those of tlie kin^_'s the cover of the sarcophaijus of David, is of Jud.ih from David downwards. Their certainly more modern tlian the time of architecture is iiiidtediy later than the Constantine.

Chap. V. TOMBS. 353 very imidi iiiincd. A somewhat similar fa(;'ade, but of a fonii more like the liroek Doric, in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, bears the name of the Sepulchre of 8t. James, and near this is a square tomb cut out of the rock, but standing free, and with a pyramidal roof, which is unlike anything else seen cither here or in these parts. The most remarkable, however, is that called the Tomb of Absalom, consisting of a square basis, adorned Avith 4 Ionic columns on each face, and above this a low circular tower, Avhich seems to have been intended to bear cither a small domed building like the central one on the upper part of the Khasne, or a simple dome. The present somewhat anomalous termination is in masonry, and so unlike everj^thing else of its class that we know of, that we must consider it as a modern improvement. The third group is that of Gyrene, on the African coast. Notwithstanding the researches of Admiral Beechey and of M. Pacho, they are still much less perfectly known to us than they should be. Their number is inmiensc, and they almost all have architectiiral faq'ades, generally consisting of 2 or more columns between pilasteis, like the grottos of Beni Hassan, or the tomb of St. James at Jerusalem. Many ol' them show a powerful reminiscence of Greek taste, though they are 20 J. Tomb at Mylassa. 2 A

354 I ;u.M A X AliCUlTKCTUKE. liuOK VII. for the most })art uiiiloubtedly of Kouian date, and the paintings with which many of tlu-m are still adonaed aie certainly in Koniau taste. None of them have such splendid architectural fa(;ades as the Khasnc at Petra ; but the number of tombs which are adonied with architectural features is greater than in that city, and, grouped as they are together in tenaces on the hill side, they constitute a necropolis among the most striking of tlie ancient world. Altogether the group somewhat resembles that at (.'astel d'Asso, but is more extensive and far richer in external architecture. Time has not left us a single built tomb in all these places, though there can be little doubt but that they once were numerous. Almost the only tomb of this class constructed in masonry known to exist, which in many respects is perhaps the most interesting of all, is found in Asia Minor, at Mylassa in Caiia. In form it is something like the free standing rock-cut examples at Jemsalcm. As shown in the woodcut (Xo. 292), it consists of a square base, which supports 12 columns, 8 of which support a dome, the other 4 merely completing the square. The dome itself is constructed in the same manner as all the Jaina domes are in India, being of the class illustrated by the diagrams in woodcuts Ko. 47 to 50, and, though ornamented with Roman details, is so unlike anything else ever built bj' that people, and so completely and ])erfectlv Avhat we find re-appearing 10 centuries afterwards in the far east, that we are forced to conclude that it belongs to a stylo once prevalent and long fixed in these lands, though it now stands as the sole representative of its class. Another example somewhat similar stands at the opposite extreme of what may be called the Roman Eastern world, from the locality of which we last spoke, at Dugga, near Tunis, 293. Tomb at Dngga. From a drawing by F. Catherwood. in Africa. This, too, consists of a square base, taller than in the last example, and surmounted by 12 Ionic columns, but here merely used as oniaments

Chai'. V. DOMESTIC AECHITECTUPE. ;J65 to support a coniice, tho prolilo of which bcarK a rciiiaika})lo rcseinbhincc to Egyptian t'oriDs. It was terminated apparently by a pyramid in steps, of which notliing now remains but the 4 head-stones of tho corners, wliich serve to give character to the angles, which tho simple pyramid so used always wants. Tliis and the St. luimi tomb are perhaps the two most elegant cxam})les t)f tombs which antiquity has left us, and those which might be most profitably studied for modern purposes. DoMKSTic Architecture. We know, not only from the descriptions and incidental notices that have come down to us, but also from the remains found at Pompeii and elsewhere, that the private dwellings of the Eomans were characterised by that magnificence and splendour which we find in all their works, accompanied, probably, with more than the usual amount of bad taste. No palace except that at Spalatro has been preserved to our day, nor any building of such a class as to come under the head of domestic art ; still, so much is to be learnt from what does remain, that it is impossible to pass over the subject altogether. In Rome itself no ancient house — indeed no trace of a domestic edifice— exists except the Palace of the Caesars on the Palatine Mount. Even this is now merely a heap of shapeless ruins, so much so as to have defied even the most imaginative of restorers to make anything of them except a vehicle for the display of their own ingenuity. The extent of these ruins, coupled with the descriptions that have been preserved, sutfice to convince us that, of all the palaces ever built, either in the East or the West, this was probably the most magnificent and the most gorgeously adonied. Never in the world's history does it appear that so much wealth and so much power were at the command of one man as were held by the Caesars ; and never could the world's wealth have fallen into the hands of men more inclined to lavish it for their own personal gratification than these emperors were. Besides, they could ransack the Avhole world for ])lunder to adoi-n their buildings, and they could command tho artists of Greece, and of all the subject kingdoms, to assist in rendering their golden palaces the most gorgeous that the world had then seen, or is likely ever to see again. Notwithstanding all this splendour, this palace was prol)ably as an architectural object inferioi- to the Thermaa. The thousand and one exigencies of private life rendered it impossible to impart to a residence — even to that of the world's master — the same character of grandeur as may be given to a building wholly devoted to show and ]iublic purposes. In its glory the Palace of the Caesars must have been the world's wonder ; but as a ruin deprived of its furniture and ephemeral splendour, it probably would present nothing either pleasing or instructive, ^\'e must not look for either beauty of i)roportion or perfection of construction, nor even for appropriateness of mateiial, in the hastily constructed halls of men whose unbounded power was only equalled by the coarse vulgarity of their characters. 2 A 2

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3oG KUMAN A HCHlTECn'UUE. Book VII. Spalatro. The only palace of the Koman Avurld of which sufficient remains are still left to enable ns to ju(lp;e either of their extent or their arrangements is that which Diocletian bnilt lui- liimself at Spalatro, in ]);ihn:itia. and in which he spent the remaininu; years of his life, after shaking otf the cares of empire. It certainly gives us a most exalted 2iM. r'alacf of Uioclclian at Spalatro. I'roin Adams. i(h.a of what the s])lendour of tlie imi)erial ])alace at l\ome mnst have been when we find one em])eror— certainly neither the richest nor the most pcjwerful — building, for his retirenient, a villa in the country of almost exactly the same dimensions as the Escurial in Spain, and consequently surpassing in size, as it did in magnificence, most of the modrni palaces (if P^urope. It is uncertain how far it resembles or was copied from that in

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riiAi>. V. DOMRSTIO AncillTKC'IMTRE. 357 tr--'^ ^ > OS C o

358 IJOMAN ARCHITECTURE. Rook VII. Rome, more especially as this must he regarded as a fortified palace, which there is iiu reasou to believe that at Home was, and its model seems to have been the pi-setorian camp rather than any habitation built within the protection of the walls of a city. In consequence of this its exterior is plain and solid, except on the side next the sea, where it was less liable to attack. The other 3 sides are only broken by the towers that flank them, and those that defend the great gates Avhich open in tlie centre of each face. The building is nearly a regular parallelogram, though not quite. The south side is that facing the sea, being r)92 ft. from angle to angle : the one opposite only 570;' while the east and west sides measure each 098 ft., the whole building thus covering about 0^ English acres. The j)rincipal entrance to the palace is on the north, called the Golden Gate, represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 295), showing all the peculiarities of lioman architecture in its last stage. The horizontal architrave still remains over the doorway, a useless ornament, under a bold discharging arch, which usurps its place and does its duty. Above this, a row of Corinthian colinnns, standing on brackets, sujiported the archivolts of a range of niches — a piece of pleasing decoration, it must be confessed, but one in which the original purpose of the column has been entirely overlooked or forgotten. Entering this portal, we pass along a street ornamented with arcades on either side, till exactly in the centre of the building this is crossed at right angles by another similar street, proceeding from the so-called Iron and Brazen Gates, similar to the Golden Gate in design, but far less richly ornamented. These streets divided the building nearly into 4 portions : the two northern ones are so much ruined that it is not now easy to say either what their plan was, or to what piuioose they were dedicated ; probably the one might be the lodgings of the guests, the other the residence of the principal officers of the household. The whole of the southern half of the building was devoted to the palace properly so called. It contained 2 tem})les, as they are now designated. 'I'hat (m the right is said to have bet'n dedicated to .Tupiter, though, judging from its form, it seems rather as if intended as the mausoleum of the founder than as a temph> of that god. As a teniiilc it has been illustiated at a previous page.'' Opposite to it is a small temple, dedicated, it is said, to iEsculapius. Between these two is the arcade represented in woodcuts No. 240 and 290, at the upper end of which is the vestibule — circular, as all buildings dedicated to Vesta, or taking their name from that goddess, should be. This opened directly on to a magnificent suite of 9 a})artments, occupying the principal part of the south front of the palace. Beyond these,, on the right hand, were the private apartments of the emperor, and behind them his baths. The opposite side is restored as if it exactly corresponded, but this is more than doubtful ; and, indeed, ' By nn oversight this difference is not expressed in tlm wondrut. * Seo pp. 1:513, 314.

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Chap. V. DOMESTIC AIJCII rrKCTUlJE. ;?.50 296. Part of Ccnlral Araule, and upper pari of Temple, Spalatro. I'lMin Sir 0. Wilkinson.

300 KOMAN AEC'IITTECTUEE. Book VI 1. there is scarcely sufficient authority for many of the details shown in the plan, though they are, perhaps, sufficiently exact to convey a general idea of the arrangements of a Koman imperial palace. Perhaps, hoAvcver, the most splendid feature in this palace was the great southern gallery, bib ft. in length l>y 24 in width, extending along the whole seaward face of the building. liesides its own intrinsic beauty as an architectural feature, it evinces an appreciation of the beauties of natiire which one would hardly expect in a Koman. This great gallery is the principal point in the design, and commands a view well worthy that such a gallery should be built for its complete enjoyment. Failing in finding any example of domestic architecture in Rome, we turn to l'om})eii and Ilerculaneuni. where we find niunerous and most interesting examples of houses of all classes, except, jierhaps, the best ; for there is nothing there to compare with the Laurentian villa of Pliny, and some others of which descriptions have come down to us ; and besides this, Pompeii was far more a CJrecian than a Koman city, and its buildings ought to" be considered rather as illustrative of those of Greece, or at least of Magna-Gr^ecia, than of anything found to the northward. Still they belong to the Eoman age, and, except in taste and in minor arrangements, we have no reason to doubt that they did resemble those of Kome, at least sufficiently so for illustration. ^^ith scarcely an exception, all the houses of Pompeii were of one story only in height. It is tnie that in some we find staircases leading to the roof, and traces of an upper story, but they seem to have been places for washing and diying clothes, or some such domestic purjDOse, 7-ather than living or even sleeping rooms. All the princi])al ajiartments, at all events, were certainly on the gioinid flo their windows, it was impossible to enjoy privacy or security without at the same time excluding both light and air, except b}- lighting their rooms from the interior. Hence it arose that in most instances the outside of the better class of houses was given up to shops and smaller dwellings, Avhich opened on the street, while the residence itself was wholly hidden fiom view by them, except the principal entrance, and sometimes one or two private doors that opened outwards. Even in the smallest class of tradesmen's houses which opened on the street, one apartment seems always to have been unroofed to light at least two rooms on each side of it, used as bedrooms ; but as the roofs of all are now gone, it is not easy always to determine which was 80 treated. It is certain that, in the smallest houses which can have belons;ed to pei'sons at all above the class of shopkeejiers. there Avas always a central apartment, imroofed in the ccntie, into Avhich the (jthers open. Sometimes this was covered by 2 beams placed in one direction, and 2 crossing them at right angles, framing the roof into 9 compartments, generally (jf unequal dimensions, the central one being open, and Avith

CllAI'. V. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 361 a con-e.spoiidin«; sinking in the Hour to receive the rain and drainage whieli inevitably came through it. W hen thi.s conrt was of any extent, 4 pillars were required at the intersection of the beams, or angles of the opening, to support the roof. ]u larger courts 8, 12, 16, or more columns were so employed, often appai ently more as decorative objects than as required by the constructive necessities of the case, and very fretpiently tlie nrunbers were unequal, even on opposite sides. Fi-equently the angles were not right angles, and the pillars sjiaced unr(pially with a careless disregard of symmetry that strikes us as strange, though in such objects this was perlia})s better than cold and foi'mal legularity, and more productive of grace and beauty. Besides these courts, thei-e generally existed in the rear of the house a court bounded by a dead Avail opposite, which in the smaller houses was painted, to resemble the garden which the laiger mansions possessed in this direction. The apartments looking on this were of course perfectly jirivate, which cannot be said of any of those looking inwards on the ntr'mm. The house called that of Pansa at l\)mpeii is a good illustration of those peculiarities, and as one of the most regular is generally chosen for the pui-pose of illustration. In the annexed plan (woodcut Ko. 297) all the parts that do not belong to the principal mansion are shaded darker except the doubtful part marked A, which may either have been a separate house, or the women's apartments belonging to the principal one, or, what is probable, ma}' have been designed so as to be used for either pui-pose. B is certainly a separate hous^e, and the whole of the remainder of this side, of the front, and of the third side, till we come opposite to A, was let off as shops. At C we have the kitchen and servants' apartments, with a private entrance to the street, and an opening also to the principal peristyle of the house. Returning to the principal entrance or front door D, you enter through a short passage into the outer court E, on each side of which are several small apartments, used either by the inferior members of the household or for guests. A wider passage than the ontiance leads from this to the peristyle, or principal apartment of the house. On the left hand are several small rooms, used no doubt as sleeping apartments, and probably closed by half-doors open above and below, so as to admit air and light, while preserving sufficient privacy, for Roman tastes at 297. House of Pansa at Pompeii. From Gell's Pompeii. Stale ICO ft. to 1 in.

;Ui2 UOMAN AIU'HITECTUKE. 1!ook VII. least. In front and on the riglit lianil are 2 larger rooms, either of which may have been the triclininm or dining-room, the other being what we should call the drawing-room of the house. A passage between the kitchen and the central room leads to a verandah which crosses the whole length of the house, and is open to the garden beyond. As will be observed, architectural effect has been carefully studied in this design, a vista nearly 300 ft. in length being obtained from the outer door to the garden wall, varied by a pleasing \Aaj of light and shade, and disi^laying a gradually increasing degree of spaciousness and architectui'al lichness as we advance. All these points must have been productive of the most pleasing effect when complete, and of more beauty than has been attained in any modem dwelling of like dimensions that I am acquainted -with. Generally speaking the architectural details of the Pompcian houses are carelessly and ungracefully moulded, though it cannot be denied that sometimes a certain elegance of feeling iims through them that pleases in spite of our better judgment. It was not, however, on form that they depended for their effect ; and consequently it is not by that that they must be judged. The whole architecture of the house was coloured, but even this was not considered so important as the paintings which covered the flat surfaces of the walls. Comparing the Pomiieian decoration vsdth that of the baths of Tit\is, the only specimen of the same age and class found in Pome, it must be admitted that the Pompcian examples show a more correct taste, not only in the choice but in the application of the ornaments used, thoiigh inthe execution there is often that difference that might be expected between paintings executed for a ])rivate individual and those for the Emperor of the Puman world. NotAvithstanding this, these paintings, so wonderfully lueserved in this small prcjvincial town, are even noAv the best specimens we possess of mural decoration. They excel the onuimentation of the Alhambra as being more varied and more intellectual. For the same reason they arc superior to the works of the same class executed by the Moslems in Egypt and I'ersia, and they are far superior to llie rude attempts of the Gothic architects in the middle ages ; still they are probably as inferior to what the Greeks did in their best days as the jiillars of the Ponipeian peri.styles are to the porticos of the Parthenon, lint though doul)tless far infeyor to their originals, tlio,

Chap. V. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 363 sisting of onianionts directly copied from Greek models ; the other with a considerable infusion of Roman forms. This Komanised variety of Greek decoration represents an attenuated and lean style of architecture, which I conceive could only have come into fashion from the continued use of iron or bronze, or other metallic substances, for pillars and architectural members. Vitiiivius reprobates it ; and in a later age Cassiodonis speaks of it in a manner which shows that it was practised in his time. The frequency of this style of ornament, both at Pompeii and in the baths of Titus, proves it to have been a very favourite style at that time. This being the case, it must have either been a representation of metallic pillars and other architectural objects then in use, or it miist have led to the adoption of such a style copied from the painted decorations. This is a new subject, and could not be made clear, except at considerable length and with the assistance of many drawings. I look upon it, however, as an almost undoubted fact that the Romans did use metal as a constructive material. Were it only that columns of extreme tenuity are represented in these paintings, we might be inclined to ascribe it to mere incorrect drawing; but the whole style of ornament here shown is such as is never found in stone or brick pillars, and could only be executed in metal. Besides this, the pillars in question are always represented in the decorations as simply gilt or bronzed, while the representations of stone pillars are coloured. All this evidence goes to prove that a style of ait once existed consisting of the employment of metal for the principal features, all material traces of which are now lost. The disappearance of all remains of such a style is easily accounted for by the perishable nature of iron from rust, and the value and consequent insecin-ity of bronze and similar metals. We know that much I)ron/.e has been stolen, even in recent days, from the Pantheon and other buildings which are known to have been adorned with it. Another thing which Ave leain from these ]»aintings is, that though the necessities of street architecture conq)elled these city mansions to take a rectilinear outline, whenever the Roman architects built in the coiuitiy they indulged in a picturesque variety of outline and of form which they perhaps carried fiirther than even the Gothic airhitects of the middle ages. This indeed we might have expected, from the carelessness in respect to regularity in the town-houses ; but these were interiors, and, were it not for the painted representations of houses, we shoiild have no means of judging how the same architects would treat an exterior. From this source, liowever, we learn that in the exterior arrangements, in situations where they were not cramped by confined space, the plan would have been totally free from all stiffness and formality. In this respect Roman taste coincided with that of all true architecture in all parts of the world. It would scaicely have deserved to be noticed, but that in modern times the fault of too great regularity of external plan is painfully prevalent — a fault originated by the architects of the Renaissance, who did not perceive that it was a fatal mistake to treat a number of chambers grouped together precisely as if they were a single apartment.

364 ROMAN ARCHlTECTUIiE. Book YIl. Bridges and Aqukducts. Perhaps the most satisfactory works of the Komans are those which we consider as bchjiigiiig to civil cn

Chap. V. BRIDGES AND AQUEDUCTS. 365 Tlic aqueducts of Segovia and Tarragona in Spain, though not perhaps so grand, are quite as elegant and appropriate as this ; and if they stood across a line of well wooded and watered valleys, might fonn.as beautiful objects. Unfortunately the effect is much marred by the houses and other objects that crowd their bases. Both these rise to about 100 ft. above the level of their foundation in the centre. That of Segovia is raised on light piers, whose eifect is perhaps somewhat spoiled by numerous offsets, and the upper tier is perhaps too light for the lower. These defects are avoided at Tai-ragona, the central arches of which are shoA\Ti in the annexed woodcut. In this example the proportion of the upper to the lower arcade is more perfect, and the whole bears a character of lightness combined with constructive solidity and elegance unrivalled, so far as I knoAv, in any tither Avork of its class. It wants, however, the grandeur of the Pont du Gard ; for though its length is about the same, exceeding 800 ft., it has neither its height nor the impression of power given by the great arches of that building, especially when contrasted with the smaller ones. The Roman bridges were designed on the same grand scale as their aqueducts, though from their nature they of course could not possess the same grace and lightness. This was more than compensated by the inherent solidity and the expression of power that was imparted by the Romans to all these structures. They seem to have been designed to last for ever; and but for the violence of man, it would be hardly possible to set limits to their durability. Many still remain in almost every corner of the Roman Empire ; and wherever found are easily recognised by the unmistakeable impress of Roman grandeur which is stamped upon them. One of the most remarkable of these is that which Trajan erected at Alcantara, in Spain, represented in the annexed woodcut. The roadr 3U0. Bridge of Trajan at Alcantara, in Spain. way is perfectly level, as is generally the case in Roman bridges, though the mode by which this is obtained, of springing tln^ arches from dificrent levels, is perhaps not the must jjleasing. To us at least it is unfamiliar, and has never, I think, been adopted in modem times. In such a case we shoidd either have made the arches all equal — a mistake, considering their different heights — or have built solidly over the

366 ROMAN AKCHITECTURE. T^ook VII. smaller arches to brinj^ Tip the level, which would have been a far grealA^r error in construction than the other is in taste. The bridge consists of 6 arches, the whole length of the roadway being (550 ft, ; the 2 central arches ai'o about 100 ft. span; the roadway is 140ft. above the level of the stream which it crosses. The piers are well proportioned and graceful ; and altogether the work is as fine and as tasteful an example of bridge-building as can be found anywhere, even in these days of engineering activity. The bridge which the same Emperor erected over the Danube was a far more diificult work in an engineering point of view ; but the superstructure being of wood, resting only on stone piers, it would necessarily have possessed much less architectural beauty than this, or indeed than many others. These examples must suffice of this class of Eoman works, which is so typical of the style that it was impossible to omit the subject altogether, though it scarcely belongs in strictness to the objects of this book. The bridges and aqueducts of the Eomans richly desei-ve the attention of the architect, not only because they are in fact the only works which the Eomans, either fi-om tjxste or fi-om social ]>osition, were enabled to carry out without affectation, and with all their originality and power, but also because it was in building these works that the Eomans acquired that constructive skill and largeness of proportion which enabled them to grasji at such large dimensions, to vault such s]iaces, and to give to their buildings generally that size and inqiross of power which fonn their chief if not their only merit. It Avas this too that enabled them to invent that new style of vaulted buildings which at one period of the middle ages promised to reach a degree of peifection which no architecture of the world had ever attained. The Gothic; style, it is tnie, perished at a time when it was very far from completed ; but it is a point of no small interest to know where and how it was inventeji. We shall aftei-wards have to trace how far it advanced towards that peifection at which it aimed, but to which it never reached. Strangely enough it failed soleh' liecause of the revival and the pernicious influence of that very parent style to which it owed its birth, and whose own growth and maturity we have described in the grandeur of the edifices reared at Eome in the first centuries of the Empire.

OuAP. I. 8ASSANIAN AllCIHTKCTUHE. 'Ml BOOK VIII. SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER 1. SASSANIAN ART. CONTENTS. Historical notice — Palaces of Diarbekr and Al Hadhi" — Domes — Serbistan Firouzabad — Tak Kesra. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA DATES. Ardeshir or Artaxerxes establishes Sassaniaii dynasty a.d.223 Diarbekr aud Al Hadhr built (about) . . 250 Serbistan (about) 350 HaluamGuur begins to reign .... 420 DATES. Firouzabad (al)out) 450 Khosru Nushirvan begins to reign . . . 531 builds palace at Ctesiphon (about) . 550 Conquest of Persia by Arabs .... 641 There is no hiatus in the whole history of architecture more complete than that which occurs in Central Asia during the 10 centuries which elapsed from the conquest of that country by Alexander the Great till the time when it fell under the yoke of the Mahometans. At the same time there are few gaps which it would be more interesting to fill up. For though we are enabled from our knowledge of the history of Roman art to trace every step of the change which took place in the transfoi-mation of the classic style of Rome to that of the Mediaival Gothic, we are wholly without the means of following out the same process in the East. The destiiiction of Alexandria, and the disappearance of Seleucia and Ctesiphon and all the other great cities of Asia, have left us almost wholly without materials for this pui-pose. In consequence of this many of the forms which architecture took during the middle ages in the eastern half of the Roman Empire must remain to us inexplicable riddles, unless it should happen that a more careful examination of provincial examples may suiq)ly the required infonnation. It is more than probable that such cities as Diarbekr, Mardin, Nisibin, and others situated near the hills and where stone was currently used, may aiford many examples for this purpose when looked for, and there are no doubt many very early churches in Asia Minor

368 SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book Vlll. aiul Anuoiiia which would supply some at least of the links in the now broken chain. It is tnic nevertheless that the study of Roman art explains much of wliiit we find in tlie first ages of that of Byzantium. But the transfoi"mation of tlie former into tlic latter style Avas owing to the introduction of a new element whicli has hitherto heen unheeded, and a knowledge of which can only he sujjplied from Central Asia. The want of this knowledge is not so much felt in studying the buildings of Constantinople itself as in tliose of Armenia and Asia Minor. In the capital the influence of IJome always predominated, but farther cast it very early gave place to the Asiatic forms Avhose influence soon obliterated all trace of western art. It is only when we shall acquire a knowledge of the steps of the transformation in the East as well as in the ^^'est that we shall xuiderstand tlie Christian Byzantine style, which is almost equally important Avith the Gothic, or know from whence and how that Eastern style arose : at present we are very far from having the information requisite for the purpose. The dearth of monuments is almost absolute during the fiist half of these dark ages of the Persian Empire. During that period the throne was occupied by the Soleucida^ and Arsacidaj, Grecian and Parthian strangers, who occupied the coTuitry more as a conquered province than as their settled home, and consequently cared little to adoni it with great or lasting m(miunenti> of art. Their cities were built principally out of the materials of the older capitals, and adorned with architectural ornaments stolen from their edifices. These materials too being mcjcly sunburnt bricks, we cannot wonder that all the principal buildings, not only of Susa and Babylon, but also of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, have wholly disapjicared. Had these cities been situated farther north, and had stone been more generally employed in their construction, the case might liave been diff'crent ; but the sunburnt bricks and wooden ]nllars which seem always to have been the staple material of construction in the southern parts of the valley of the Euphrates perish almost as soon as the buildings in which they are used arc deserted, and in a few years leave nothing but a mass of undcfinablc nibbish. The only two Iniildings which arc known to exist belonging to this period are the niins of two palaces, one at Diarbeki-, the other at Al ITadhr. Both owe their preservation to the circumstance of their being situated near the hills, and consequently to their being built of the stone of the neighbourhood. The Ijuilding at Diarbekr is known as the palace of Tigranes, though certainly more modeni than his age. It consists princijially of a fa(;ad(i two stories in height, ornamented with Corinthian jiilasters and three (piartcr columns of a debased but ])ictures(pie style. These are surmounted by very deep entablatures, every meml>er of whicli is overloaded with minute and elaborate carving. dis])laying all the Koman ornaments, but seldom in their right places, and far too crowded to be pleasing.

Chap. I. AL HADHR. ;J69 Between the pillars are doorways and windows, some crowned with pointed arches, others with a rude trefoil, but none with the plain square architrave of the classic styles. Altogether the building is such that if it were found in Fi-ance no one would hesitate to ascribe it to the reign of Francis 1. ; and it would be difficult to point out any feature in this Eastern example which would not perfectly agree with such an ascription. So remarkably similar were the fonns which arose in different parts of the world immediately out of the Classic style, in the middle ages, both to one another and to those which prevailed when, dining the period of the Eenaissance, architecture passed back to the pseudo-classic again. The Golden Gateway and the mosque of Omar at Jenisalem are the buildings in the East which most resemble this one at ])iarbekr in style. Those examples certainly belong to the age of Constantine, and the exuberance of ornament at Diarbekr, and the admixture of barbarian details, would lead us to sTippose that this palace was more modern than those buildings at Jerusalem. The true explanation, however, most probably is that this building is situated in a remote province, where Eoman influence must always have been weak, and where consequently its builders emancipated themselves earlier from the classic fonns than tbey could do in countries longer occupied b}^ the Eomans. Though not so early as the time of Tigranes, it is probable that this building was erected at least a century before that of Constantine. The other building, that at Al Hadkr, is situated in the plain, about 30 miles from the Tigris, nearly west from the ruins of Kaleh Sherghat. .'iOl. Plan of Palace at Al Iladhr. From a Sketch by Mr. Layard. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. The city itself is circular in plan, nearly an English mile in diameter, and surrounded by a stone wall with towers at intervals. In the centre of this stands a walled enclosure, nearly square in plan, about 700 ft. by 800. This is again subdivided into an outer and inner court by a wall across its centre. The outer court is unencumbered 2 B

87U SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book VIII. by buildings, the inner nearly filled with them. Tlie principal of these is that ropioscntod in wondcnt No. ;5

Chap. I. AL HADIIR. 371 all the arches, and I'onu iu fact the principal features of the decorations. Even tradition is silent regarding the date of these remarkable ruins. The style of architcctnre, hcnvcvcr, certainly points to a period anterior to the age of Constantine, but not so early as the time of Aurelian and the flourishing days of Palmyra. They are probably nearly coeval with those at Uiarbekr. It is difficult, however, to speak at all confidently, as we are so entirely ignorant of the local circumstances of the j)laee at the time the buildings were erected, and local pcculiai-ities often influence a style as much as the age in which it flourished. With the accession of the Sassanians, a.d. 223, Persia regained much of that power and stability to which she had been so long a stranger. The capture of the Koman Emperor Valerian by the 2nd king of the race, the conquest of Armenia and victories over Galerius by the 7th, and the exploits of the 14th, Baliram Gaur, and his visit to India and alliance with its kings, all point to extended power abroad; while the improvement in the fine arts at home indicates returning prosperity and a degree of seciu'ity unknown since the fall of the Achajmeuidai. These kings seem to have been of native race, and claimed descent from the older dynasties ; at all events they restored the ancient religion, and many of the habits and customs with which we are familiar as existing before the time of Alexander the Great. As before remarked, the fire-worship does not admit of temples, and we consequently miss that class of buildings which in all ages best illustrates the beauties of architectui-e ; and it is only in a few scattered remains of palaces that we are able to trace the progress of the style. Such as they are, they indicate considerable originality and power, but at the same time a state of society when attention to security hardly allowed the architect the free exercise of the more delicate ornaments of his art. The Sassanians took up the style where it was left by the builders of Al Iladhr, but we only find it after a long interval of time, during which changes had taken place which altered it to a considei'able extent, and made it in fixct into a new and complete style. They retained the great tunnel-like halls of Al Iladhr, but only as entrances. They cut bold arches through the dividing walls, so as to form them into lateral suites. But above all they learnt to place domes on the intersections of their halls, not resting on drums, but on peiideiifives,^ and did not even attempt to bring down simulated lines of siqi})ort to the gi'ound. Besides all these constnictive peculiarities, they lost all trace of Roman detail, but adopted a system i)f long reedlike pilasters, extending from the ground to the cornice, below which ' These are expedients for filling up the or corbels placed in an angle. Examples corners of square lower stories on which it of them will be found in the chapter on is intended to place a circular superstructure. Mahometan Architecture in India, further 'fhev somewhat resemble vcrv large brackets on. 2 1! 2

372 iSASSANIAN AKCHITECTUKE. BuOK Vlll. they were juined by small semicirciilar arches. They in short adopted all the peculiarities which are found in tlie Byzantine stvle as carried out at a later age in Armenia and the East. We must know more of this style, and be able to ascribe authentic dates to such examples as we are acquainted with, before we can decide whether the Sassanians borrowed the style from the Eastern Romans, or whether they were in fact the inveutt)rs from whom the architects of the more western nations took the hints which they afterwards so much improved upon. The various steps by which the Romans advanced from the constniction of biiildings like the Pantheon to that of the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople are so consecutive and so easily traced, that they are intelligible in themselves without the necessity of seeking for any foreign element which may have affected them. If it really was so, and the architecture of Constantinople was not influenced from the East, we must admit that the Sassanian was an independent and simultaneous invention, possessing characteristics well worthy of study. It is quite certain too that this style had a direct influence on the (Christian and Moslem styles of Asia, which exhibit many features which they could not have derived from any of the more western styles. A few examples will render this clearer than it can be made in words. The plan and section (woodcuts No. 303 and No. 304) of a 303. Plan of Palace at Serbistan. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. 304. Section on line A B of Palace at Serbistan. From a drawing In Flandin and Coste's Voyage en Perse. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. small but interesting palace at Serbistan will explain most of the peculiarities of the style. The entrances, it will be observed, are deep tunnel-like arches, but the centre is covered by a dome resting on pendentives, not filling up the angles by a great bracket, as was usual with the Romans, but constructed by throwing a series of arches across them, as shown in the woodciit, so as to convert the square into the circular form rc(|uired. The dome too is elliptical, not semicircular, and is the next step to the pointed or ccmical dome, which was necessarily introduced in the more rainy climates further north. Being of brick, the building depended externally on stucco for its ornaments ; and this having perished, wo are left without the means of judging of its details or ornamental features. In the lateral halls, pillars are placed at some distance from the walls, from which heavy transverse ribs spring. The builders thus

Chap. I. FlIIOUZABAD. 373 obtained the means of counteracting the tlinist of the vault, without breaking the outline by buttresses externally, and without occupying much room on the floor, while at ihc same time tliese projections added considerably to the architectural effect of the interior. The date of this building is not correctly known, but most jirobably it belongs to the age of 8hapour in the middle of the third century. The palace at Firouzabad is probably a century more modem, and erected on a far more magnificent scale, being in fact the typical building of the style, so far at least as we at present know. As will be seen in the plan (woodcut No. 305) the great central entrance opens laterally into two side chambers, and these into a suite of three splendid domed apartments, occupying the whole width of the building. Beyond this is an inner coui-t, surrounded by apartments all opening upon it. As will be perceived from the woodcut Xo. 306, representing one of the doorways in the domed halls, the details have nothing Eoman about them, but are borrowed directly from Persepolis, with so little change that the style, so far as we can now judge, is almost an exact reproduction. The portion of the exterior represented in woodcut No. 307 tells the same tale, though for its protot}^e we must go back still further to the ruins at Wurka — the building called Wuswus at that place (see page 185) being a palace arranged very similarly to these, and adorned externally by panellings and reeded pilasters, differing from these buildings only in detail and arrangement, but in all essentials so like them as to prove that the Sassanians borrowed most of their peculiarities from earlier native examples. The building itself is a perfectly regular parallelogram, 332 ft. by 180, without a single break, or even an opening of any sort, except 305. Plan of I'alace at Firouzabad. From a drawing by Flandin and Coste. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. 306. Doorway at Firouzabad. and Coste. , 10 feet. From Flandin

SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE. Hook VIII. 307. Part of Kxternal Wall, Firoiuabail. No scilo. the one great arch of the entrance ; and oxtemally it has no ornament but the ro])ctiti(m of tlie till ]iilasters and narrow arches represented in woodcut No. .itiT. Its aspect is thus simple and severe, but more like a gigantic Bastilo than the ~ *""ij^""-^ })alace of a gay pavilion-h)ving pco])le like the Persians. internally the arrangement of the halls is simple and appropriate, and, though somewhat too formal, is dignified and callable of considerable architectural display. On the whole, however, its fonnality is perhaps less pleasing than the more picturesque arrangements of the palace at Serbist^m last described. Another century probably elapsed liefore Khosni (Nusliii-A'an) commenced llic most daring, though certainly not the most beautiful, building ever attempted by any of his race; for to him we nnist ascribe the well-known "Tak Kesra" (woodcuts No. H08 and iS'o. 809), the only imp«^)rtant ruin that now marks the site of the Ctesi})lion of the Greeks — the gi'eat Madain of the Arabian conquerors. As it is, it is only a fragment of a palace, a fac^ade similar in arrangement to that at Firouzabad, but on a much larger scale, its width being 370 ft., its height 105. Instead of the plain circular arch of the earlier example, the architect heie has attcnqited the secticm of one of his domes — * hoping thus to avoid some, at least, of the ..J 308. riuu of Tak Jvt'sra at CU'siphon. From Flandiii and Coslc. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. lateral thrust — to obtain, in short, by an ellipse what the Gothic architects managed by the pointed arch. As a mere scientific point of C(mstruction it is not clear that the Sassaniau did not take the lu^st mode of attaining his end ; but to our eyes, at least, it appears fortunate that the Gothic architects had other models before them, or they might have copied what perhaps even their ability would never have rendered a beauty. Another detail in which this building contrasts most painfully with the la.st described is that, instead of the tall, simple, and elegantlyshaped pilasters that adorned its exterior, we here find a number of stories of blind arches superimposed the one on the other without any apparent motive, and certainly witln)ut any compensating degree of elegance. The foiling of small arches, however, round the gi'eat one

CiiAi'. r. AlU;ii AT TAK KKSIJA. 375 is curious, and points to a mode of decoration whicli .subsequently played an important part in the history of architecture.' :-l 3U9. Elevation of Great Arch of Tak Kesra at Ctesiplioii. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. Though it may not perhaps be beautiful, there is something certainly grand in a gi'eat vaulted entrance, 72 ft. wide by 85 ft. in height, and 115 in depth, though it makes the entrance at the inner end and all the adjoining parts look singularly small. It would have required the rest of the palace to have been carried out on an unheard-of scale to compensate for this defect. The Saracenic architects got over , the difficulty by making the great portal a semidome, and by cutting it up with ornaments and details, so that the doorway looked as large as was required for the space it occupied. Here, in the parent form, all is perfectly plain in the interior, and painting only could have been employed to relieve its nakedness, which however it never could have done effectually. Taking it altogether the biiilding is interesting as containing the germs of much that followed, rather than for any intrinsic merit of its own. Tlie same is perhaps true of the style to which it belongs. If properly worked out and illustrated it wovdd probably explain nearly all the difficulties of the Eastern forms of the Byzantine style ; and there can be little doubt but that ample materials exist for the purpose, and will be made available as soon as attention is fairly directed to the subject. ' The.se 5 buildings, taking the first two as one, probably date a.s near a.s may be one centiuy from each other, thus — Di.irbckr . . A. Al Hadhr . . Serbistan . . . .350 A.D. 4.50 550 i.u. 250\ . 250/ Firouzabad . Ctesiphou A bare skeleton which it will require much time and labour to clothe with (lesh and restore to life.

370 SAlUOEmC ARCHITECTURE. I^ook IX. BOOK IX. SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Tin.; first century of the Hejra forin.s a chapter in the history of mankind as startling from the brillian(;y of its events as it is awtonisliinf^ from the permanence of the results attained. Whether we consider the fijst outburst of Mahometanism as a conquest of one of the most extensive emjiires of the world by a small and previously unknown people, or as the propapjation of a new rclij;-ion, or as both these events combined, the success of the movement is without a parallel in history. It far surpassed the careers of the great Eastern conquei-ors in the importance of its, effects, and the growth of the Roman empire in brilliancy and ra]udity. From Alexander to Napoleon conquests have generally been the result of the genius of some gifted individual, and have left, after a short period, but slight traces of tlieii- tiansicnt splendemr. Even Rome's conquest of the world was a slow and ])ainful effort compared with that of the Arabians ; and, though she imposed her laws on the ctmquered nations, and enfoired them by her military organisation, slic neither attemi)ted nor had the power to teach them a new faith; nor could she bind the various nations together into one great people, aiding her with heart and hand in the great mission she had undertaken. It is true that a poor and simple, but warlike and inde]icndent, people like the Arabs could not long exist close to the niins of so wealthy and so overgrown an empire as that of Constantinople without making an attempt to appropriate the sjioil which the effeminate hands of its possessors were evidently unable to defend. It was equally inqiossible that so great a penersion of Christianity as then ])revailed in Eg>^it and Syria could exist in a country which from the earliest ages had been the seat of the most earnest Monotheism, without provoking some attempt to return to the simpler faith which had never been wholly superseded. 80 that on the whole the extraordinaiy success of ■Vlnhomotanism at its fii-st outset must be attributed to the utter corruption, religious and political, of the exjiiring empire of the

Chai'. 1. INTllOnUCTlON. 377 East, as much as tu an}' inherent, greatness in the system itself, or the ability of the leaders who achieved the great work. Had it been a mere ct)nqncst it mvist have crumbled to pieces as soon as completed ; for Arabia was too thinly populated to send fortli armies to fight continual battles and maintain so widely extended an emph-e. Its permanence was owing to the fact that the converted natit)ns jt)ined the cause with almost the enthusiasm of its oiiginal promoters ; Persia, Syria, and Africa in turn sent forth their swarms to swell the tide of conquest, and to spread the religion of Islam to the remotest corners of the globe. To understand either Mahometan history or art it is most essential to bear this constantly in mind, and not to assume that, because the fLrst impulse was given IVom Arabia, everji^hing afterwards must be traced back to that primitive people ; on the contrary, there was no great depopulation, if any, of the conquered countries, no great transplantation of races. Each conntr}^ retained its old inhabitants, who under a new form followed their old habits and clung to their old feelings with all the unchangeableness of the East, and perhaps with even less outward change than is usually supposed. Before the time of Mahomet the Sabaian worship of the stars was common to Arabia as well as to Persia and a great part of the Babylonian empire. The Jewish religion was diffused through Syria and parts of Ai'abia. Egypt, long before the time of Mahomet, must have been to a great extent Ai-abian, as it now wholly is. In all these countries the I'eligion of Mahomet struck a chord that still vibrated among the people, and must have appeared more as a revival of the past than as the preaching of a new faith. In Spain alone colonization to some extent seems to have taken place, and the faith to have been new and strange ; and there too alone we find the inevitable corollary of its early extinction. So weak indeed in the converted countries was the mere Arabian influence, that each province soon shook off its yoke, and, under their own caliphs, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain soon became independent states, yielding only a nominal fealty to that caliph who claimed to be the rightful successor of the Prophet, and, except in faith and the form of religion, the real and essential change was slight, and far more in externals than in the innate realities of life. All this is more evident from the architecture than it is fi'om any other source, without at least more study than most people would feel inclined to devote to the subject. The Arabs themselves had no architecture, properly so called. Their only temple was the Kaabah at Mecca, a small square tower, almost without any architectural ornaments, and far more famous for its antiquity and sanctity than for any artistic merit. It is said that Mahomet built a mosque at Medina — a simple edifice of bricks and palm-sticks.' But the Koran gives no directions on the subject, and so simple were the primitive habits of the nomade Arabs that it is probable that if the religion had been confined to its native ' Aliiilfeila, ed. Keiske, vol. i. p. 32

378 SARACENIC AKCHITECTUUE. Dook IX. land, no mosque wurthy of the name would ever have been erected. NVith them prayer everywhere and anywhere was equally acceptahle. All that was requii-ed was for the Isiithful to turn towards ]Mecca at stated times and pray, going through eertain forms and in certain attitudes, but whether the. place was the desert or the housetop was quite immaterial. Persia too seems in the earlier ages of Mahometanism to have rettiined her primitive horror for a stone-and-mortar worshij), and to have refrained from building mosques, as she had refrained ui still eai-lier ages from erecting teuq^les properly so called ; at least no trace of any ancient mosque has yet been discovered in that land, nor even a very distinct tradition of their former existence or character. If they did exist, they no doubt took their forms principally from the buildings with which the Sassanian kings had adoi ued the country. In Syria the earlier buildings were direct copies of the Byzantine churches that had previously existed there ; and in Egypt the lioman remains furnished both the ideas and the materials for their earliest edifices. Unfortunately the architecture of these lands, from the time of Constantme to that of Heraclius, is only veiy imperfectly kno\v'u to us, and there is some difficulty in tracing the Moorish forms back to their source. In Spain the Eoman remains exercised an even more distinct intluence on the style than elsewhere, and, 'knowing more of :Mahometan architecture in that country, we can more easily point out the mode in which this influence acted. This adoption of the forms belonging to the conquered couirtries is even more striking when we tuni to India, where in the 12th century we find the Moslems employing Hindu architects to erect and adom their mosques in their own native styles. Even two centuries later, when the Mahometans conquered Constantinople and began to ador-n it with edifices consecrated to their own faith, they did not follow the models they were familiar with in those lands where they had long been settled, but copied, with more or less fidelity, the Chr-istian edifices of the captirred city. It is true that, after centuries of practice, most of these heterogeneous elements became fused into a complete style. This style possesses so much that is entirely its own as to make it often difficult to detect the germs, taken from older styles of architecture, which gave rise to many of its most striking peculiarities. These, however, are never entirely obliterated. Everywhere the conviction is forc^Ml upon us that (jriginally the ^loslems had no style of their- own, but adopted those which tliey fi^und practised in the countries to which they came. In other words, the conquered or associated people still continued to build as they had built before their conversion, merely adapting their former methods to the purposes of their new religion. After a time this Mahometan element thus introduced into the styles of different countries produced a certain amount of imifonnity. This was increased no doubt by the intercommunications which arose from the community of religion. In tliis way at last a style was elaborated.

Cn.vi-. I. INTRODUCTION. 379 tolerably homogeneous, though never losing entirely those local peculiarities which it received from tho earlier styles out of which it rose, and which still continue to mark most distinctly the various nationalities which niiido up the great empire of Islam. So essential is tho observance of these distinctions of races and styles to enable us to understand the architecture generally and appro]iriatoly known under tho title of Saracenic, that it is impossible to tulliiw its history consecutively as a whole; and it will be necessary to divide it into chapters, each comprising a separate branch of the style, and thus going several times over the same periods of time, but of coiu'se avoiding as for as may be possible anything like repetition. Tho following appears to be the division that will enable this to be done with the greatest distinctness : — 1st. The Syrian — the earliest and most like the Byzantine of all the Mahometan styles, but of which few early specimens now remain. 2nd. The Egyptian, which may be called the typical style of the group, commencing at the same time and from the same originals as the Syrian ; but, being practised without foreign admixture for 10 or 11 centuries, it acquired a completeness and at the same time an elegance greater than what is found in any of the others. 3rd. The Persian — a style whose origin it is difficult now to trace, but which at its culminating point rivalled that of Egypt in splendour, but never in elegance nor in true architectural propiiety, 4th. The Indian styles naturally form the next chapter. Theu* origin and history being perfectly well known, no difficulty can arise in tracing them to their source, or mai'king their gradations, or in appreciating their beauties, which in some respects are nearly unrivalled. 5th. After completing this sui-vey of the Eastern styles, we return to that of Spain — a st^de differing so much from the others as to constitute a subject very complete in itself. 6th. The last distinctive style is that of Constantinople, comprising merely those edifices which were erected by the Turks in imitation of Santa Sophia and the other Christian churches of that city.' Domes and Pointed Arches. It will be necessary, before describing the different branches of Saracenic architecture, to say a few words on the introduction of some of its principal distinctive features. In speaking of Roman ai'chitecture allusion was more than once made to the change brought about by tho ' As will be observed, the style enumerated believe the order adopted will be found more imder the first two heads rose diicctly out of convenient. Besides, we know so very little the Byzantine art; and in strictness the of the arts of the Christian East, between the chapter ouglit consequently to follow what is ages of Coiistantine and Heracliiis, that no said on that style. A perfectly consecutive direct light can, at present at least, be thrown arrangement of so complex a subject is, I on the subject from that source. If, howfear, impossible ; and so much inconvenience ever, any part of what follows seems obscure would occur from breaking the tiiread of the from the want of the previous knowledge, I Christian narrative, to introduce a descrip- must beg the reader to peruse first the tion of a style, only two of whose various chapter on Byzantine art, and then return forms 3'ose out of that Christian art, that I to this.

380 SAIiACENlC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. introduction of arches by that people, not only into the constniction, but info tlie decorative paiis of buildings. Even this was less important than the introduction of continuous arches, or in other words of vaults and doni(\s, as a r()t)fing to interiors, which gave an entirely new cliaracter to the wh(jle aii, necessitating a new and complicated arrangement of tlirusts and equipoises, with abutments and buttresses of various sorts, to maintain an equilibrium in the various parts of the edifice. This necessity was wholly unkno^\^l in earlier styles — a prop sufficient to support a weight acting peiiicndicularly upon it being all that was then re(piired ; and as pillars sufficed, and were the most convenient mode of eifecting this, they were generally adopted for the purpose. The walls were merely subordinate screens, and a description of the orders, as they Avore called, or, in other words, of pillars with the bases and entablatures, constituted tlie whole science of decorative architecture, \\ith the introduction, however, of stone roofs, constructed on this principle, the case became widely difierent. Pillars no longer sufficed, and walls of greater or less thickness, or piers which were massive fragments of walls, were introduced, and the wliole style of decoration and constniction altered to suit this new exigency — that of constructing a building whose roof should be composed of the same materials as its walls. The Koman roofs were of tAvo kinds : the one domical, or circular both in plan and section ; the other either a plain txmnel-A-ault, or a continuous vault of the same sort, intersected by smaller or similar vaults cutting into the principal one at right angles. The Pantheon at Kome ' is the typical example of the first, the Basilica of Maxentius * of the last class of vaults. The latter generally Avere considered as the most convenient, inasmuch as the looms they covered Avere rectangular in plan, Avhich is always an advantage for an interior, and they might be in any proportion of width to length that might be desired. The fonner at first Avere confined to circular apartments ; by degrees, hoAvever, men learnt, by the use of pcndentives (as AA-ill be explained in the chapter on Byzantine art), and by other expedients, to place domes first on square, and then on rectangular apartments, and by this means they formed roofs AA'hich sui-pass in beauty any of those constnicted on the rectangular principle. In the division of the Roman empire and Roman art the dome fell to the share of the eastern half, the rectangidar vaults to the western half of the empire : both AA'orked them out in their own peculiar fashion till they avIkiHv lost all trace of their Roman origin, but neither ever practically interfered Avith the heritage of the other— the dome in Western Europe being rare and exceptional, and never an essential part of the style, Avhile the rectangular vault is as rare in the East, and (piite as little an integi-al part of their mode of decoration. So far as Ave can noAv form an opinion, the eastcni nation had by fiir the noblest share, and took the element of Roman art which was most capable of being elaborated into forms of beauty. They never, how' Woodcut, J,. .SI 1 ct xcq. « P. 320 et seq.

Chap. I. INTRODUCTION. 381 ever, had either tlie power or the energy of the western people, and the result perhaps is that the inferior element is woiked into more forms of beauty than the nobler one, bnt this is certainly not always the ease, thoiigh it is so often enough to make ns regret the strange neglect of this wonderful invention of the dome by our Gothic forefathers. Before much progress had been made in the practice of this new art of I'ooiing, both nations found themselves forced to abandon the semicircular arch, and to adopt either the pointed one or some stilted or analogous form. In the West it was the exigencies of vaulting that induced the architects to adopt so universally as they did the broken arch instead of the continuous one. This is noAv generally admitted ; but it is not so well understood why in the East it should also have come into such general use. A little reflection, however, will show how difficult it is to adopt the curves of a pendentive to a circular arch, and how weak the arrangement is when it is done, the upper curves at A in the annexed diagram (Fig, 1) being actually evanescent points f 310. Fio. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. of no thickness in some parts, if properly carried out. With a pointed arch, however (Fig. 2), even when the pendentives follow its lines, there is some thickness in every part, and no cm-ve need slope foi-ward at a greater angle than 45 degrees. The eastern pointed arch is always, from this cause I believe, straight-lined at the summit. But if, as in the third example, the architects were content to reduce the square on the ground, iirst to an octagon at the springing of the roof, and then, by cutting off the angles, to a polygon of 16 sides, on which a cii'cle easily rests, with the assistance of the pointed arch, the whole becomes so constructively correct that no difficulty is experienced, even in domes of very great span, while the same arrangement with circular arches would have been both weak and awkward. Still it is scarcely probable that the Saracenic architects would have used this form so early and so generally as they did, if it was not a usual and customary shape of arch in the East at the time when they first began to build. There is every reason to suppose that this was the case ; and that fi-om the time of the building of the sepulchral chambers at Mycense to the Christian era there is no difficulty in tracing it in Greece, in Etruria, and in Asia Minor, wherever a Pelasgic or Oriental people are found. In the older examples it is always constructed horizontally, in which form it is fomiliar and frequent (as at Assos, woodcut A'o. 198) as an ornamental style of opening. It is found in the pyramids of Meroe (as before mentioned, page 250),

382 SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. as old OH 8 centuries before Cliri.st, and Sir Gardner Wilkin.sou ' has pointed out its frequent use in the Christian churches of the TlieLaid before the era of the Ilejra. It is tnie that, wherever the influence of Kome was thorougVily established, we find during the period of their domination nothing but circular arches ; but it is not a little curious to iind the pointed shape in the earliest Christian church of which we have any knowledge — the one built in the age of Constantine over the tomb of our Saviour at Jenisalem. There the older Oriental form reappears, so timidly, it is true, as almost to escape ob.se i"V'ati on, but still showing how readily an Eastern people return to ancient habits and feelings as soon as the oppressing hand is removed. Other examples of this age exist, I believe, at Diarbekr, and at other places in that country ; but they have neither been looked for, nor, when seen, examined with the care they deserve. Pointed arches reappear in the aqueducts of Justinian at Constantinople, and evidently Avere becoming or had become a current feature of architectural decoration at the time of the great Moslem in-uption. If no other proof of this existed, the fact that the Saracenic architects used them almost exclusively from the first ought to be sufficient to establish the fact. They are found in the oldest part of the mosque which Amrou built at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in the middle of the 7th century. No othei"s are used constructively in the gi'eat mosque el Aksah built at Jenisalem at the end of that century ; and in the mosque of Ebn Touloun at Cairo, erected in the 9th century, the pointed arch is an essential and perfectly established element of art, wholly superseding the round arch, or anything approaching to it. It is true we still want examples to connect these two ])oints in its history. A little research will no doubt supjily this, but for our present purjjose it is sufficient to know that this form of arch was used by the first Saracenic architects a few years after the commencement of the Moslem domination, and that during the 9th century of our era it had Ijecome as essential a i)art of that art as it was of Christian art in France in the 13th centurv. ' In a p.iper read at the lioyal Institution lielieve, aware t)iat I had read a ]ia]>er on the of liritisli Arcliitects, July IG, 1849. Sir same suhjett, attcmi>ting to prove the sitnio Gardner was then abioad, and was not, I facts, on the 18th of the previous month.

CiiM'. II. SYRIA AND EGYPT. 383 CHAPTER II. SYEIA AND EGYPT. CONTENTS. Mosques at Jerusalem — El Aksah — Mosque at Damascus — Egypt — Mosques at Cairo — Other African buildings — Mecca. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. DATES. Tho Ilejra a.d. 622 Caliph Omar bdiltis mosque at Jerusalem 637 Amrou— mosque at Oki Cairo .... 642 AM el Malek builds El Aksah, at Jerusalem 691 Caliph Walid builds mosque at Damascus 705 PATES. Ebn Touloun at Cairo a.d. h76 El Azhar 981 Sultan Barkook 1149 Kalouii 1284 Saltan Hassan 1356 As before mentioned, the earliest mosque of wliose existence we have any record was that built by Mahomet himself at Medina. As, however, it contained apartments for his wives, and other rooms for domestic purposes, it might perhaps be more properl}^ denominated a dwelling-house than a mosque. Indeed sacred buildings, as we understand them, seem to have formed no part of the scheme of the Mahometan religion. The one temple of this foith was the Kaabah at Mecca, towards which all believers were instructed to turn Avhen they prayed. When, however, the Mahometans came among the temple-building nations, they seem early to have felt the necessity of some material object — some visible monument of their religion; and we find that Omar, when he obtained possession of Jerusalem, in the ir)tli year of the Hejra, felt the necessity of building a place of praj^er towards which the faithful might turn, or rather which should point out to them the direction of Mecca.' Consequently we read that, while he respected the Christian sacred buildings with the most scrupulous fidelity to the terms of the treaty, he erected a small place of worship within the precincts of the Jewish temple, on that spot where Julian the Apostate had previously attempted to re-edify that building, and which was then neglected and held accursed by tho Christians. That mosque now exists among the adjuncts of the Aksah, though whether it be the building now known as the mosque of tlie JMogrebins, ' For the pai-ticulars of tlie Iniikling of tlie on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem, mosque, I must refer the reader to my work wliere he will find them stated at length.

384 SARACENIC AHCHITECTURE. Book IX. or the small coll which still bears ( )iuar's name* (see woodcut No. '.ill), to the eastward of the mosque, may be dis])uted : 1113- own imi)rcKsion is that the latter is most probably the spot. As might be expected from the simplicity of the Caliph's character, his poverty, and his hatred of everything like ostentation, this mosque is a very simple building, being merely a plain vaulted cell, about 1 8 ft. wide by neaiiy 80 in length ; it may, ho\\ever, have extended a little farther westward originally, and a portion of it may have been cut off when the neighbouring A^csah was built, and included within its walls.' The only other mosque of this age of which we have any knowledge is that erected by Amrou at Old Cairo in Egypt, in the 2l8t year of the Hejra. The troubles that succeeded the murder of AH and his sons seem to have been singularly unfavourable to building or any of tlie ai-ts of ])eace during the next half-century, and no record has yet been brought to light of any impoi-tant building erected during that period. In the (lOth year of the Hejra, Abd el Malek, the Caliph of Damascus, til. I'lun of the Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem. Scale lOU ft. to 1 ir ' The mo.sque of the Mogiebins is a plain vaulted apartment, 25 (cct by 173.

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Oha!' HI. AKSAIl, .IKIU'SALEM. y85 detormined to erect a mosque at .Jern.saloin. ITis objects wotc to set up tliat city as a place ofi)ilgiiiuage in opposition to INIecca, which Avas then in the possession of a rival, and to carry into effect wliat was at one time understood to liavo hoen the intention of Mahomet — of choosing the temjilo (»f J(n-usalcm instead of that of Mecca as the holy place of his newreligion. These ulterior purposes were never carried out, in consequence of the violent opposition Avhich the project met with from the Jews. The mosque which Abd el Malek erected still remains tolerably unaltered to the present time, and fortunately the enterprise and industry of three Englishmen ' have enabled us to speak correctly as to its plans and details. The plan (woodcut No. 311) will show that it is in fact a Christian basilica of 7 aisles, and of considerable dimensions, being 184 ft. wide by 272 in length over all, thus covering about 50,000 square ft., or as much as many of our cathedrals. It has a porch which seems to ha^-e been a later addition, and has not the usual square court in front, which was an almost invariable accompaniment of 312. View iu the Mosque el Aksab at Jerusalem. ' I refer, of course, to Messrs. Catherwood, Arundale, and Bonomi. Had the English public shown the least degree of interest in these researches, they would have been published long ago ; but this not being the case, I must again refer to slight reductions of them contained in my work on Jerusalem. 2 c

38G SARACENIC AHCHITECTURE. Hook IX. riiristian basilicas of that date, and still more so of mosques ; indeed, these latter took their fonn from the gradual rodTiction of the dei)th of the elunch jiart of the arraHj;enient, and the increase of the court, which eventually became the mosque itself. " 'I'lic interior is supported," says an Arab historian,' "by 45 columns, ;}3 (if which are of marble, and 12 of common stone." These are all evidently taken from more ancient buildings. "Besides this there are 40 piers of common stone." Arcul]thus, a Christian monk, who saw it about a century after its erection, describes it as a square building, capable of containing about 3000 persons, and mentions the curious ])eculiarity of the pillars being connected by beams, showing that the construction Avas then the same as we see now, as is shown in the woodcut (No. 312), which is a view taken across the southern end of the building. The pier arches are pointed throughout, but above this is a range of openings with cii'cular heads. Taken altogether, it certainly is historically one of the most interesting buildings of its age ; and it is very much to be regretted that apathy should prevent its being more fully illustrated than it has been. Mosque at Damascus. Another Ijuilding of the same age, but of even greater interest, is the great mosque at Damascus, at one time the Church of St. J ohn. For more than half a century after the captu)-e of the city by thcMoslems it remained in the i)ossessi(m of the Christians. At that time (a.d. 705) it was ceded to the Caliph Walid. the successor of the builder of the Aksah. According to -Jelal ii deen,'' the chinch of St. John remained the joint property of the Christians and Moslems, both praying together in it, or, at least, on the east and west sides of a partition run tlu-ough it, from the fall of the city in the year of the Ilejra 14 to the time of the Caliiih Walid in the year 86. Ho either offered the Christians 4 desecrated churches in exchange for it, or threatened to deju-ivo them of one which they held on sufferance. As soon as this matter was settled, it is said, he pidled down the Christian church, or at least part of it, and in 10 years completed the present splendid mosque on its site, having first procured from the emiieror at Constantinople fit and proper persons to act as architects and masons in its constniction. Although, therefore, it may differ in arrangement from Christian churches of that age, it may, as far as detail is concenied, be considered as a specimen of liyscantine architecture of the beginning of the 8th century, or, in other words, of the Eastern architecture of that age — for there were not yet two styles when it was erected. Fiom a MS. plan brought home by Mr. Porter it appears that the moscpie itself has three great aisles nearly 5(>0 ft. long, running easf and west, separated from one another by pillars borrowed from llic earlier Christian or. Pagan temple which stood on this spot. Their continuity is broken in the centre by a transept raised higher than the rest, and stipporting a small dome in its centre. ' Mi'jr ed Ucen. Kundgiuben des Orients, ^ History of Jerusalem, translated by the vol. ii. ]). S'.i. Rev. M. IJeynolds, j). 409 et serj.

CiiAi'. II. SYHIA AND EGYPT. 387 The soutli wall has the usual niches (31iihab) to indicate the direction of IMecca, and above these a range of circnlar-headed windows, running the whole length of the mosque. To the noi'th the mosque o})ens by a series of arches suiqxirtcnl on ])illars into a courtyard about 500 ft. long, by half that in width, surrounded by a colonnade on three sides — the whole apparently consisting of Christian materials, but entirely re-arranged by the JMahometans. With these two mosques our list of Syrian edifices closes — not that others do not exist, but simply because no one has yet either examined or descri1)ed them. From the time of the Caliph W'alid to the epoch of the Crusades, Syria was a great and wealthy country, and all its more important cities must have been provided with places of prayer, many of which still, no doubt, remain ; and since the time of the Crusades many more must have been erected, but these, too, are equally unknown to us ; so that, for the present at least, the information does not exist from which this chapter in the history' of architecture can be written. Egypt. In Egypt our history begins with the mosque which Amrou in the 21st year of the Hejra (642 a.d.) erected at Old Cairo ; its original dimensions were only 50 cubits (75 ft.) long, by 30 cubits, or 45 ft. wide. Edu'cy ' says that it was originally a Christian church which the Moslems converted into a mosque, and its dimensions and form certainly would lead us to suppose that, if not so, it was at least built after the pattern of the Christian churches of that age. As early however as the 53rd year of the Hejra it was enlarged, and again in the 79th ; and it apparently was almost wholly rebuilt by the two gi-eat builders of that age, Abd el Malek and VValid, the builders of the mosques of Jerusalem and Damascus. It probably now remains in all essential parts as left by these two Caliphs, though frequently repaired, and probably in some parts altered by subsequent sovereigns of Egypt. In its present state it may be considered as a fair specimen of tlie form mosques took when they had quite emancipated themselves i'roui the Christian models, or rather when the court before the narthex of the Christian church had absorbed the basilica, so as to become itself the principal part of the building, the church part being spread out into a mere deep colonnade, and its three apsidal altars modified into niches jxjinting towards the sacred Mecca. As will be seen from the plan, it is nearly squaie, 390 ft. by 357 ft., consisting of a court-yard, ,2 55 ft. square, surrounded on all sides b) porticoes, supported l)y 245 columns taken fif)m older edifices of the llomaus and l^yzantines. These are joined together by brick arches of circular form,'^ tied at their springing by wooden beams, as in the ' Translated by M. Jaubert, torn. i. p. 303. * M. Coste makes all tliese arches pointed. The particulars of this description are taken JI. de I'rangey states that they are all cirfromM.GiraultdePraniiey, MonuniensArabes, cular; the truth being that they are partly compared with M. Coste's Eldifices de Caire. one, partly the other. 2 c 2

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;{88 SARACENIC AHCHITKCTURE. Hook IX. u 1. ■ :?!:?. AFosqtie of Aiiiryu, OM Cairo. From Costc"s Architecture Aiabi\ Scale 100 ft. to lin. ..#r-;^«:Aksah, and covered by a wooden roof. All this ])urt. of the mosque, however, has been so often lejjaired and renovated, that little i)robably of the original decoration remains. Of the orio-inal mos(jue, or perhaps ehurch, the only part that can with certainty be said to remain is a portion of the outer wall, lepresented in woodcut No. 814, which l)nsscss(.'s the peculiarity of beinp; I milt with ])ointed arches, similar in form to those of el Aksah at .Jerusalem. They are now built up, and must liave been so at the time (»f one of the earlier alterations ; still they are from their undotibted anti(piity a curious contribution to the much-contested history of the pointed arch. The whole mosque is now in a sad state of degradation and decay, notwithstanding the beautiful climate of Egyi>t, arising principally from its original faulty construc:il 4. Arclies in the Mosque of Amrou. From O. do i'rangey's work.

Cii.vr. II. SYIMA A XI) KtiYlT. 389 tion. Owing to the paucity of details, many of M. CoBte's restorationis must be taken as extremely doubtful. From the time of the great rebuilding of the mosque of Amrou under ^\'alid, there is a gap in the arehiteetural liistory of Egypt of nearly a century and a half, during Avhich time it is probal)le that no really great work was xmdertaken in it, as Egypt was then a dependent province of the great Mahometan empire. \\ ith the recovery, however, of something like independence, w^e find one of its most powerful rulers, Ebn Touloun, erecting a mosque at Cairo, which, owing to its superior style of construction, still remains in tolerable perfection to the present day. As usual, tradition ascribes the design to a Christian architect, who, when the Emir declined to use the columns of desecrated churches for the purposed mosque, offered to build it entirely of original materials. He was first thrown into prison from the machinaticms of his rivals, and ill-treated ; but at last, when they found they could not dispense with his services, he was again sent for, and his design carried out.' Be this as it may, the whole style of the mosque shows an immense advance on that of its predecessor, all trace of Roman or Byzantine art having disappeared in the interval, and the Saracenic architecture appearing here complete in all its details, every part originally borrowed from previous styles having been worked up and fused into a consentaneous whole. Whether this took place in Egypt itself during the century and a half that had elapsed is by no means clear ; but it is more than probable that the brilliant Courts of Damascus and Bagdad did more than Egypt towards bringing about this result. At all events, from this time we find no backsliding ; the style in Egypt at last takes its rank as a separate and complete architectural form. It is tiTie, nevertheless, that in so rich a storehouse of materials as Egypt, the architects could not always resist appropriating the remains of earlier buildings ; but when they did this, they used them so completely in their own fashion, and so worked them into their own style, that we do not at once recognise the sources from which they are derived. • To return however to the mosque of Touloun. Its general arrangement is almost identical with that of the mosque of Amrou, only with somewhat increased dimensions, the court being very nearly 300 ft. square, and the whole building 390 ft. by 455 ft. No pillars whatever are used in its construction, except as engaged corner shafts ; all the arches, which are invariably pointed, being supported b}' massive ])iers. Two ranges of these arcades surround 3 sides of the court, while on that towards Mecca there are 5 ; but with this peculiarity, that, instead of the arcades running parallel to the side, as in a Christian church, or in the mosque of Amrou, they run across the mosque from east to west, as they always did in subsequent examples. The whole building is of brick, covered with stucco ; and fortuSce Coste's Edifices de Caire, p. 32, qiiotin;^ from Mackrisi.

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390 SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. nately almost eveiT oiU'iiiiif^ is surinonntod by an inscription in tlie old form of I'nliu characters, which were then used, and only used about tho period to which the mosque is ascribed, so that there can be no doubt as to its date. Indeed, the age both of the building itself, and of all its details, is well ascertained. 315. Mosque of Kbn Toulouu at Cairo. From Cosic's Arcbiiocture Arabe. The woodcut No. 315 will explain the form of its arcades, and of the ornaments that cover them. Their general character is that oi rude and massive sim])licity, being the counterpart of our own Norman style in England. A certain element of sublimity and power, in spite of occasional chunsiness, is common to both these styles. Indeed,

Chap. SYIMA AND KCYI"!'. ;501 31(i. WiiiddW in M().siii. excepting pcrluips the Massaiieo mosque, there is perliai)s no inoNciiic in Cairo so imposing and so perfect as this, though it possesses liltlc or nothing of that grace and elegance which wo are accustomed to expect in this style. Among the more remarkable peculiarities of this building i.s the mode in which all the external openings are filled witli that peculiar sort of tracery which became as characteristic of this style as Gothic tracery was of the windows of our chuiches five centuries afterwards. With the Saracens the whole window is filled with it, and the interstices arc small and varied ; both which characteiistics are appropriate when the window is not to be looked out of, or when it is filled with painted glass ; but of course they are utterly unsuitable to our purposes. Yet it is doubtful, even now, whether the Saracenic did not excel the Gothic architects, even in their best days, in the elegance of design antl variety of invention displaj'ed in the tracery of tlieir windows. In the mosque of Ebn Touloun it is used as if an old and perfected invention, and with the germs of all those angtdar and flowing lines which afterwards were combined into such myriad forms of beauty. It is possible that some future researches may bring to light a building 50, or even 100 years earlier than this, which may show nearly as complete an emancipation from Christian art as this ; but for the present, it is with the mosque of Touloun that we must date the complete foundation of the new style. Although there is considerable difficulty in tracing the history of the style from the erection of the mosques of Damascus and Jerusalem to that of Touloim, there is none from that time onwards. Cairo alone furnishes nearly sufficient materials for the purpose. The next gi-eat mosque erected in this city was El Azhar, or " the splendid," commenced in the year 981, or about a century after that of Touloun, and, though certainly a very magnificent building showing a great advance in elegance of detail over the last named, is far from being so satisfactory, owing to the introductitin of ancient pillars in parts, and to masses of walls being placed on them, only suited to such forms as those used in the mosque of Touloun. The buildings during the next century and a half are neither numerous nor remarkable for their size, though progress is very evident in such examples as exist ; and in the middle of the 1 2th century we find the style almost entirely changed. One of the finest buildings of the last age is that Avhich Sultan Barkook built without the walls of Cairo (a.d. 1140), which, besides a mosque, contains an additional feature in the great sepulchral cham

392 SAHACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Rook IX. bei"s, wliich are in fact the principal part of the edifice, betraying the existence of a strong affinity to the tomb-lniikling races in the mlers of Eg}"|)t at that time. The plan and section (woodcuts Kos. 317 and 318), though small, -7, 1 will show the state to -1' B which the art had at that ]ieriod arrived in Egypt, riie pointed arch, as will liu observed, is used with as much lightness and legance as ever it reachid in the West. The dome has become a most graceful and elaborate appendage, forming not only a very perfect ceiling inside, but a most imposing ornament to the exterior. Above all, the minaret has here an-ived at as high a degree of perfection as it ever readied in any after age. The oldest known example of this species of tttwei' is that of the mosque of Ebn Touloun. but it is particularly ungraceful and clumsy. The minaret in that of Amrou was probably an addition of a later age. Those 317. I'lai) of Jlosque and Torabs of SnltHn Barkook. Coste. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. Tioni 318. Section of Mosq'ie of Rirkook. From Costc's Arcliitccture Ar

ClIAP. II. SYRIA AND KCYI'T. ;jy;j of the Azhar, which arc probably of the date of that mosque, ahuost equal the one represented in the woodcut; but it is only here that the_v seem to have ac(piircd that elegance and com])leteness which render them jierhaps the most beautiful fonn of tower architecture in the world. Our prejudices are of course with the spires of our Gothic churches, and the Indians erected some noble towers ; but taken altogether, it is doubtful if anything of its class ever surpassed the beauty and elegance of the minarets attached to the mosques during this and the two or three subsequent centuries. The mosque of Kaloun, and the hospital attached to it (a.d. 1284), are both noble buildings, full of the most elegant details, and not without considerable grandeur in parts. In all except detail, however, they must yield the palm to the next great example, the mosque with which the Sultan Hassan adorned Cairo in the year 1356. In some respects it is one of the most remarkable mosques ever erected in any country, and diflfers considerably from any other with which we are at present acquainted. As will be seen from the plan (woodcut No. 319), its external form is very irregular, following on all sides the lines of the streets within which it is situated. This irregularity, however, is not such as to detract from its appearance, which is singularly bold and massive on every side ; the walls being nearly 100 ft. in height, and surmounted by a cornice, which adds 13 ft. to this, and projects about 6 ft. This great height is divided into no less than 9 stories of small apartments ; Mosque of Sultan Hassan. From Coste's Architecture Arabe. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.

304 SAHACENIC AHCIIITECTURE. Book IX. but the openings are so deeply recessed, and the projections between them so bokl, that, instead of cutting it up and making it look like a factory, which would have been the case in England, the building has all the ap]>aient .solidity of a fortress, and secias more worthy of the deseonelauts of the ancient Pharaohs than any work of modem times in .•itJCUuii ol .Musque ul llas^aii, Cauu. fttalc lUM U. lu 1 iu. Internally there is a court open to the sky, measuring 117 ft. by 105, enclosed by a wall 112 ft. in height. Instead of the usual colonnades or arcades, only one gigantic niche opens in each fiice. On three sides these niches measure 4(3 ft. square ; but on that which faces towards Mecca, the great niche is 69 ft. wide by 90 in depth, and 90 ft. high internally. All 4 niches are covered with simple tunnel vaiilts of a pointed fonn, without either ribs or intersections, and for simple grandeur arc unrivalled by any similar arches known to exist anywhere. Behind the niche pointing towards Mecca is the tomb of the founder, square in plan, as these buildings almost always are, measuring 09 ft. each way, and covered by a lofty and elegant dome resting on pendentives of great beauty and richness. It is tlanked on each side by two noble minarets, one of which is the highest and largest in Cairo, and pnjbably in any part of the world, being 280 ft. in height, and of proportionate breadth. Its design and outline however are scarcely so elegant as some others, though even in these respects it must be considered a very beautiful exanq)le of its class. One of the principal defects of the building is the position of its doonvay, which, instead of facing the kitla or niche pointing towards

CiiAi'. II. SYRIA AND.RGYl'T. 395 Mecca, i.s placed iliaj^onally, in tlio street alongside of the building. It is a very beautiful specimen of architecture in itself; still its situation and the narow passages that lead from it to the main building detract most materially fi'om the effect of the whole edifice, which in other respects is so jierfect. It may have been, that ground coidd not be obtained for the purpose of placing the entrance in the right position ; but more probably it was so arranged as a means of defence, the whole structure having very much the appearance of a fortalice, and being without doubt erected to serve that purpose, as well as being adapted for a house of prayer. The mosque El Moyed, erected in 1415 a.d., is a singularly elegant specimen of a mosque with columns. Externally it measures about 300 ft. by 250, and possesses an internal court, surrounded by double colonnades on three sides, and a triple range of arches on the side looking towards Mecca, where also are situated — as in that of Barkook — the tombs of the founder and his family. A considerable number of ancient columns have been used in the erection of the building, but the superstructure is so light and elegant, that the effect is agreeable ; ajid of the mixed mosques — or of those where ancient materials are incorporated — this is one of the most pleasing specimens. Perhaps the most perfect gem in or about Cairo is the mosque and tomb of Kaitbey (woodcut No. 321 ), outside the walls, erected a.d. 1403. Looked at externally or internally, nothing can exceed the grace of every part (jf this building. Its small dimensions exclude it from any claim to grandeur, nor does it protend to the purity of the Greek and some other styles ; but as a perfect model of the elegance we generally associate with the architecture of this people, it is perhaps unrivalled by anything in Egypt, and far surpasses the Alhambra or the Western buildings of its age. After this period there were not many important buildings erected in Cairo, or indeed in Egyjit; and when a new age of splendour appears, the old art is found to have died out in the interval, and a renaissance for more injurious than that of the West is found to have grown up in the interval. In modern Europe the native architects wrought out their so-called restoration of art in their ovn\ pedantic tashion ; but in the Levant the corresponding process took place under the auspices of a set of refugee Italian artists, who engrafted their won Id-be classical notions on the Moorish style with a vulgarity of form and colour of which we have no conception. In the later buildings of Melieniet Ali and his contemporaries we find the richest and most beautiful materials, used so as to make us wonder how men could so pervert every notion of beauty and propriety to the production of such discordant \igliness. From its size and the beauty of the materials, the mosque erected by the late Pasha in the citadel of Cairo ought to rival any of the more ancient buildings in the city ; but as it is, nothing can be worse or moi'o uninteresting So little is known of the other buildings of Egypt and of the neighbouring countries, that for the present they must be passed over.

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:v.H\ SA I'iACEXlC AHCIIITECTUHE. Hook IX. r'K^ 321. Mosque of Kaitbey. From Ck>ste'ii Architecture Arabe. though luany of them are doubtless of great antiquity, and not without consideral)le pretensions to beauty and grandeur. f)ne of tlie most interesting of these is tlie mosque at Kairwan, which cannot well be passed over, as that city wius long the capital of the African provinces of the empire of the caliphs ; and it was thence that they conquered Sicily, and spread their religion into the centre of the great continent where it is located. The mosque was erected, or at lca«t commenced, in the 1st century of the Hejra, and is built

Chap. II. SYRIA -WD EGYPT. 397 principally from Kumau remains foinid in (he iieighbonrhoud, l)ii( is now considered so sacred that no Christian is allowed to set foot within its precincts, so that all we have the means of knowinp; is that it is a worthy compeer of the contemporary nlo^■ques of Damascus and Cairo. Tunis also possesses some noble edifices, not so old as this, but still of a gDod age ; but, except the minaret represented in the annexed woodcut (No. 322), none of them have yet been drawn in such a manner as to enable us to judge either what they are, or what rank they are entitled to as works of art. This minaret is one of the finest specimens of a particular class. It possesses none of the gi-ace or elaborate beauty of detail of those at Cairo ; but the beautiful pn)portion of the shaft, and the appropnate half-warlike style of its ornaments, render it singularly pleasing. The upper part also is well proportioned, but has been altered to some extent in modern times. Unfortunately neither its age nor height is coiTCctly known. It probably is 3 or 4 centuries old, and, with its contemporary the Hassanee mosque at Cairo, proves that the Saracenic architects were capable of expressing simple grandeur as well as elaborate beauty when it suited them to do so. Algeria possesses no buildings of any importance belonging to any good age of Moorish art. Those of Constantineh are the only ones which have yet been illustrated in such a manner as to be intelligible, and they scarcely deserve mention after the great buildings in Egjqit ;|||| and the countries farther east. I cannot helj) suspecting that some remains of a better age may still be brought to light ; but the French ai'chajologists seem to be wlndly taken up with the vestiges of the Romans, and not to have turned their attention seriously to the more modern style, which it is to be hoped they soon will do. In an artistic point of view, at least, this is far more important than the few fragment buildings that still are left in that remote province. 322. Minaret at Tunis. Fidiii Girault de I'rangey. of lu)man Mkcca. As an appendix to this chapter, though scarcely strictly belonging to it, a plan is introduced of the celebrated temple at INIecca, more remarkable for its sanctity than for its architectural beauty. Such drawings as we possess hardly enable us to speak positively on this head, nor do they admit of our discriminating between the parts

398 SAIJACENIC AnCrilTECTURE. Book IX. erected at diflerent ath, so as to aecommodate themselves to the external (jutline of the building, which, as shown in the woodcut (No. 323), is very irregular. It is entered on all sides by 19 gateways, some of which are said to be of considerable magnificence, and it is adonied by 7 minarets. These are ' To >;i't it witliiii tin- pjige, the scale of the plan is reduced to 200 French or 214- F^nirlish ft. to 1 in.

CiiAi'. II. SYRIA AND EGYIT. 399 placed very irregularly, and none of them arc of particular boanty or size. On the longer sides of the court there are 36 arches, on the shorter 24, all slightly pointed. They are snpported by columns of greyish marble, every fourth being a square pier, the others circular pillars. Neither its ordinance, nor, so far as we can understand, its details, render the temple an object of much architectural magnificence. Even in size it is surpassed by many, and is less than its great rival, the temple of Jenisalcm, which was 600 ft. square. Still it is interesting, as it is in reality the one temple of the Moslem world ; for though many mosques are now reputed sacred and studiously guarded against profanation as such, this pretended sanctity is evidently a prejudice borrowed or inherited fi\)m other religions, and is no part of the doctrine of the Moslem faith, which, like the Jewish, points to one only temple as the place where the people should worship, and towards which they should turn in prayer.

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400 SAIiACMNR; AROHITECTUHE. Book IX. CHAPTEK III. PERSIA.' CONTENTS. Historical notice — Imarct at Erzeroum — Mosque at Tabreez — Tomb at Sultauieh — Bazaar at Ispahau — College of Huseia Shah — Palaces and other buildings. CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. DATKS. , DATES. Arab conquest of Persia a.d. 611 i Mahomed Khodabendal), builder of toml) Haroui) el Itashoed began to reign . . 7H6 ' at Sultjinieh, began to reign . . . a.d. 1303 Itynasly of Tartar Samanides .... 874 Suli dynasty 1499 Seljiikian dynasty 1037 ; Abbas tlie Great, builder of Bazaar at • iliengis Kban 1205 \ Ispahan 1685 Ghazan Kbau builds mosque at Tabreez . 1294 I Husein Shah, last of the Sufis .... 1694 Unfortunately for the (jompleteness of our acconnt of the Saracenic style, the architectural history of Persia is a complete blank fur the first six centuries of the ITejra. Nothing remains of the ancient glories of Bagdad exeept a few fragments of the walls of the ]\Iadrissa, and perhaps one or two tombs. Bussorah and Kufa are equally destitutt^ of any architectural remains of the great age of the Caliphs. Indeed, there dues not seem to be one single mosque or building now to be found between the Euphi-ates and the Indus belonging authentically to the earlier centuries of the Mahometan era, and in sucli a state as would enable us to say what the style of those days was, or how far it resembled or diti'ered from the contemporary styles in the neighbouring eounti'ies. Much of this may be owing to our imperfect knowledge of the subject, but more perhaps to the fact of the Perisians never having been temple-builders, and consoquontly never having possessed a monumental style ea})able of prt)duciiig ]icniianent buildings. For though the Achaemenians and Sas.sanians did produce some durable structures, it seems to have been under the direct influence of the Greeks and Pomans, while all the native Assyrian and Babylonian d>Tia.sties were content to build with wood and mud, or ssome equally ])erishable materials. In consequence of this, if we exeei»t some buried fragments, all has jjcrished ; and of the architecture, properly so called, scarcely a vestige lias come down to our time. ' In speaking of Persia as one of the the countries from the Eujjhratcs to the provinces into which ."^ar.acenic arcliitecture Indus, thus comprising Me.sopotamia and is divided, it is necessary to include all Armenia.

UiiAi'. III. TEllSIA. 401 So it ;ip])eiirs to have bouii Avitli Bagdad in thu day.s of its glory. Tlio walls of the palaces seem to have been of sun-dried bricks, and the whole constructive parts of wood, covered, it may have been, with gold and silver plates, and j)ainted Avith all the hues of the rainbow, but nevertheless perishable, and certain to go to decay as soon as the maintaining liand of a resident sovereign was witlidrawn. From what we know from history of the age of Haroun el ]?asheed, it is probable that no Moorish court ever reached a higher pitch of enlightenment and magnificence than that of I'agdad during his reign (a. I). 780-80U). It was also so far removed from the direct infiuence of the Byzantine style, that it is probable we should find in his buildings the germ of nnu-h which now comes abruptly before us without our being able to trace it back to its origin. In the whole architectural histoiy of the world there is scarcely so complete a break as this, and scai'cely one so much to be lamented, considering how great and how polished the people were whose art is thus lost to us. Let us hope, however, that it is not entirely lost ; but that some fragments may yet be recovered by the first who earnestly seaiches for them. But in the mean while we must pass on to the age of Ghengis Khan, in the middle of the 13th century, before we can find one Q^rtain example of Mahometan architecture in this imjjortant district. With sxich imperfect materials it will of course be impossible to attempt anything like a continuous history of Persian architecture, but we must be content with illustrating two or three of the princi})al buildings ; by which means we shall be able to define the style with sufficient distinctness, and explain all its leading characteristics, though without being able either to trace the origin of its peculiarities, or to point out in how far they influenced the style of other countries. One of the earliest buildings of which anything like correct illustrations have been published is the Imaret or Hospital of Oulou Jami, at Erzeroum — an arcade of two stories, surrounding on three sides a court-yard 90 ft. by 45. It is broken in the centre by what in a Christian church woiild be called a transept. The woodcut here given (No. 324) shows the general appearance of the arcade, and also the upper part of two minarets which flank the external jjorch. This porch is ornamented in the richest manner of the style. Opposite to the entrance a long gallery leads to the tomb of the founder, a circular building of very considerable elegance, the roof of Avhicli is a hemispherical vault internally, but a straight-sided Armenian conical roof on the outside. These dispositions make the plan of the building so similar to that of a Christian church, that most travellers have considered it as one — mistaken the court for the nave, and the tomb, with the gallery leading to it, for the apse and choir. There can, however, be no doubt but that it was originally built by a Mahometan, for the purpose of a hospital, or place of rest for pilgrims, during the sway of the Seljukian princes in the 12th and 13th centuries; and that its similarity to a Christian church in plan is accidental, though its details 2 I.

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WI SAUACENIC AIICHITECTURE. 15ooK IX. very mueli rcsuniblo those of the churches of Ani and other placets in Arnn'iiiii. This, however, only shows that the iiihahitaiits of the same country did not practise two styles, but only arranged tlie same forms in dittereut manners to suit their various puiiooses. 321. Imuret of Oulou Jaml at Erzeroum. From Texier's Armdnie et la Perse. There is another moscpie of about the same age as this at Ani, which would show even more clearly this close analogy ; but it has never been drawn with sufficient correctness to admit of its being used for the ]»urpose of demonstrating the fact which has been pointed out. But, indeed, throughout Armenia, mosques and Christian churches altomato with one another, bon-owiug details from one another, and making up one of the most curious mixed chapters in the history of the art ; but one that remains yet to be written by some one who may visit the spot with sufficient knowledge and enthusiasm to accomplish it. Mosque at Tabreez. The next building tliat may be chosen for illustration is the ruined mosque at Tabreez, which, when perfect, must have been one of the

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Chap. HI. PERSIA. 40;; most beautiful in the coiintiy. Its history is not exactly known ; IjuI it certiiiiily l)elonjijs to the Mogul (Ivnasty, which on the doatli of Maugu Khan, the son of Ghengis Khan, was founded in Persia by Hiilaku, the brother of the first named. He and his sons generally retained the faith of their forefathers till (ihazan Khan, Avho succeeded in A.n. 1294. He zealously enduaeed the ^lahometan ftiith, and it was apparently to signalise the conversion that he began the mosfpie ; but whether it was finished by him or his successors is not quite apparent. As will 1)0 seen by the plan, it is not large, being only about 150 ft. by 120, exclusive of the tond) in the rear, which as a Tartar it was impossible he should dispense with. In plan it diff"ers also very considerably from those previously illustrated, being in fact a copy of a Byzantine church carried out with the details of the 13th century. This fact confirms the belief that the Persiaus before this age were not a mosquebuilding people. In this mosque the mode of decoration is what principally desei'ves attention, the whole building, both externally and internally, being covered with a perfect mosaic of glazed bricks of the most brilliant colours, and wrought into the most intricate patterns, and with all the elegance for AA'hich the Persians were in all ages remarkable. 325. Mosque at Tabreez. Scale Ifiu ll. to 1 in. /'/tl' i^^^ 326. View of ruined Mosque at Tabreez. From Te.xiers Anncnie et la I'erse. 2 D 2

4U4 SARACENIC AUCllITECTURE. Book IX. Europe possesses no specimen of any style of ornamentation with wliifh this can he compared. The painted phaster of the Alhanihra is intiiiitely inferior, and even the mosaic painted-alaccs, to the present day, colour has been in this country a more essential element of architectural nvagniiicence than fonu ; and here at least we may judge of what the halls of Nineveh and Persepolis once were, when adorned with colours in the same manner as this now ruined mosque of the Tartars. Tliongh of course it is impossible to represent it properly in a woodcut, the view ' (woodcut No. 320) of its principal portal will give some idea of the form of the mosque, and introduce the reader to a new mode of giving expression to poi'tals, which after the date of this building is nearly universal in the East. As Avill be seen, the entrance-door is small, but covered by a semi-dome of considerable magnitude, giving it all the gi-andeur of a portiil as large as the main aisle of the building. The Gothic architects attempted sometlung of this sort, by making the outer openings of their doors considerably larger than the inner ; in other Avords, by spJaybtg widely the jambs of tiieu" portals. By this means, in some of the French cathedi-als, the appearance of a very large portal is obtained with only the requisite and convenient size of opening ; but in this they were far surpassed by the architects of the East, whose lofty and deeply recessed portals, built on the same plan as the example here shown, are uni"ivalled for grandeur and appropriateness. The mosque seems to have been deserted long before its destruction by an earthquake in the beghming of the present century, owing to its having belonged to the Turkish sect of the Sonni, while the Persians have during the last five centuries been devoted Shiites or followers of the sect of Ali and his mart^Tred sons. Tomb at Sultanieh. (a.d. 1303-1316.) ^lahomed Khodabendah, the successor of (Jhazan Khan, the builder of the mosque at Tabreez last described, founded the city of Sultanieh, and, like a tnie Tai'tar, his first care 'ioo''ft!^lll'i'?m'" "■''' was to build himself a tomb* which should ' Both tlie plan and view arc tiken from I Won Texiei-'s ' Arnidnie et la I'ersi-,' which tjivps also several cdlouied ])latcs of the mosaic (U'coratioiis, tVom which their beauty of detail may be judged, though not the clfect of the whole. * Texier, Iroin whose work the illustrations are taken, ascribes the liuihling to another Khodabendah of the Sufi dynasty, A.U. 1577-85. A little knowledge, however, of the style should have shown him that the monument w.us '2(lO or 300 years older than that king ; and besides, the Sufis, not being Tartars, would not build tombs anywhere, much less in Sultanieh, where they never resided.

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ClIAl'. 1' EH SI A. 40o I ^\ //: / / i^ ^^ ^XM "■■'fV'*' •"m/im^mmmmimMk' ij^;.^ .i , 1 •#'>r-f ju^'ji ■ J VI ~ -nrr iTi 1 n i"rn 328. Sectiuu of the i'omb of Sultaii Khodabenduli at buUanioli. Piom lexicr's Armeuie ft U l'trs(\ Scale 5(1 ft. to 1 in. It •■ ..^-^^■tj.JaSdL;*-' '■ :'^w^r;*:^ .32!). View of the Tmiib at .'

4U() SAliACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. become tlie ]irinci|)al ornament of liis new city. Ker Poi-ter ' says that, Leiniz; seized witli as iimcli zeal for his new Shiite faith as liis jiredecessur had been for tlie Sunnite, his intentiun was to lodge in this mausoleum the remains of Ali and his son Ho^sein. This intention, however, was not carried into eftect, and we know that his oanti bones repose alone in their s])leiidid shrine. In ai-tment being surmounted by a dome 75 ft. in diameter and 110 ft. high intenially ; but being double, like most domes of this age, its external height is 105 ft., ' Travels, vol. i. ji. 277. of St. Mark's at Venice, wliich resembles * Ker I'ortor's Travels, vol. i. p. 432 ct it more than any other area, is only 5f>

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Chap. III. PERSIA. 407 wliich is also the lieiglit of the luiiiarets attached tu the mosque. On tlu'ee sides tlie mosque is surrounded by court-yards, riclily onifi^ merited, and coutniuiug fountains and basins of water for the prescribed ablutions of the faithful. The principal court measures 225 ft. by 170, 330. Great Slosque at Ispahan. From Texier's work. Scale 100 ft to 1 iu. u-u ^'.J—

408 SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Rook IX. and, Riirrotindcfl as it is on all sides l)y fa(;adcs in tlic richest style of IV-rsian jtolyeliruniatic decoration, the hrilliancy of its architectural effect is almost unrivalled by any other example of its class. Both in arcliitectural forms and in the style of ornament this mosque is inferior to those at Tahreez and at Sultanieh; but for mass and amount of decoration it is perhajis the most magnificent specimen in existence. Taken altogether, the ]\Iaidan Shah, and its accompanying mosques and gates — the whole being the work of one king and on one design — present a scene of gorgeous, though it may be somewhat barbarous s])l('ndnur almost unequalled in the whole world. Even now, in its premature decay, it strikes almost every traveller, though the style is not one that looks well in ruin, owing to the perishable nature of the materials and the tawdry eifect of glazed tiles, when it is seen tliat they are a mere surface ornament to the walls. 331. Madriasa of SulUtn Uu^ein at Ispahan, trorn Flaudin and Coste's Voyage en Perse. The forms and peculiarities of this style will be better judged of — in a woodcut at least — by the representation of the Madmsa, or college, of Ilusein Shah (woodcut ^u. .'i.'Jl), the last of the Sufi kings of Persia; and though erected at the end of the 17th century, while the gi'eat mos([ue was built in the beginning of it, but little change seems to have taken place in the interval : the minarets are of the same foj-m, the double bulb-shai)ed dome is similar, and the double arcades that suiTound the court of the mosque are the same in form as those that cnciiclo the Maidan Shah.

CiiAi". HI. PEKSIA. 409 From the time of the Aij:;li;iii invasion, wliicli took place clniinp;tlie reign of the Sultan lluscin in the beginninjj; of the last eenluiy, I'er.sia docs not seeiu to have recovered herself sufficiently to undertake any great wt)rks ; some palaces, it is true, have been built, and mosques of inferior dimensions, but nothing really remarkable of late years. The influence of the corrupt styles of Europe has become too a]»i)arent to enable us to hope that she will ever again bo able to recover her place in the domain of art. When we have completed the survey of the Saracenic style by dcseril)ing it as found in India and Spain, we shall be better able to judge of the merit of the Persian form of it. In the mean while it is sufficient to observe that its chief historic interest rests on the fact of its being a modem reproduction of the style of the ancient jialaces of Nineveh and Babylon, using the same thick walls of imperfectly burned bricks, and covering them with the same brilliant coloured decorations of glazed and painted tiles and bricks, carrying this species of decoration to an extent never attempted in any other part, of the world. This too constitutes its jirincipal claim to interest in an artistic point of view, showing how far polychromatic decoration may be used, not only internally but externally, without any oflPence to good taste, but, on the contrary, with the most complete success in producing that beauty and splendour which is the aim of all architectural utterance. Palaces. The Persian princes showed almost as much taste and splendour in their palaces as in their mosques ; but these were not from their nature so capable of architectural display as the others. An Eastern palace neither requires that mass of apartments and offices which are indispensable in Europe, nor does the climate admit of their beingmassed together so as to "form a single grou]), imposing fiom its size. On the contrary, the Persian palaces generally consist of a number of pavilions and detached halls, and smaller groups of apartments scattered over a large sjiace interspersed with trees and gardens, and only connected by covered arcades or long lines of canals, the centre of which is adorned by fountains of the most elegant forms. Individually these detached buildings are often of great beauty and most elaborately ornamented, and the whole effect is pleasing and tasteful ; but for true architectural effect they are too scattered, and the Avholc is generally very deficient in grandeur. The throne-room at Teheran (woodcut No. 332) is a fair specimen of these buildings, though in fact it is only a porch or deep recess opening on a garden, the front being supported or omajnented by two twisted columns. In fi-ont of these a massive curtain is dra\vn out when the room is used, and Ijoth for colour and rit^hness of effect the curtain is virtually the princiital feature in the coinjtosition. The next example is taken from the palace of Char l^agh, or the four gardens at Ispahan, and shows the general ])icturesquc foi-m these buildings assume. It is by no means so favourable a specimen as the

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410 SARACENIC ARCIIITECTURE. Book IX. last, thouoli this may arise more from tlie nature of the l)ui](liii

Chap. III. PERSIA. 411 is tnie, to Persia, but wliicli, from tlio ohai-acter of tli(> frafTu! in morcliandise, and the general insecurity of tlio roads along which it is conducted, have received a great development in that C(3untry. Internally, their* usual form is that of a square couit-^^ard, surrounded by a range of arcades generally two stories in height, each arch opening into a small scjuare cell at the back. Externally they present onl}' a high plain wall, surmounted by battlements and flanked by towers at each angle, and sometimes also by additional towers in the longer faces. The principal architectural ornament is lavished on the gateways, which arc almost always higher than the contiguous walls, and often display great beauty of design combined with considerable elaboration of detail. It is not, however, only in these larger monuments that the Persians show an appreciation of the beautiful and a power of expressing it. As in most Eastern nations, the feeling seems innate, and all the minor objects show it as well as the more important ones. They are now too deeply depressed to attempt much ; but it cmly seems to require a gleam of returning sunshine to enable them again to rival in art the ancient glories of Nineveh and I'ersepolis, provided they can avoid the snare of copying, which has been fatal to the art of most modern nations.

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412 SARACENIC AUCIIITECTURE. 13ook IX. CHAPTER IV. 1 N J) 1 A. CONTENTS. Local character of stj-le — Ghazni — Remains at Delhi — Jaunpore — Mosques at Gour — Maudoo — Mosque at Futtehpore Sicri — Mosque of Shah Jehan at Delhi — Tombs — Tombs at Agra and Old Delhi — The Taje Mehal— Great Dome at Bcejapore — Palaces: of Akbar; of Shah Jehan. CHRONOLOGICAL JIKMOliANDA. DATES. Sabuktagin tlio Ghaznavide. First Mahometan invasion of India .... a.d. 975* Maliniuud, conqueror of India .... 997 Shaliab ud deen esUdjlislies Gliori dj'nasty 1183 KooluV) nd duen I'Stablislies I'atlian dynauty, t)uilder of mosque at Delhi .... 1206 Sekander .Sliah, builder of mosque at Gour 135S Khoja Jehan, builder of mosque at Jaunporc 1397 Babcr establishes Mogul dynasty . . . 1494 PATKii. Ynsuf Khan establishes dynasty at Beejapore A.i>. 1501 Hmnaynn, builder of tomb at Old Delhi . 1531 Akbar, builder of mosque and palace at Futtehpore Sicri — tomb at Socuudra . 1556 Mnhammcd, builder of great dome at Beejapore 1626 Shah Jehan, builder of palaces at Dcllii and Agra. Taje Mehal at Agra . . 1G2S Aurungzebe 165^ * If not otiicru ise stated, the dale given is that of ttic beginning of the reign. DuiMNG tlie ]ienuaiieiice of the Tioman empire a great belt of stutiunary civili/.ed nations extended nearly due eastAvard from the shores of the Mediterranean to the Bay of Bengal. Uninfluenced by their arts or civilization, two great wandering hordes hung upon the northern and southern frontiers. The Arabs, as the nearest and most impetuous, first burst their bonds, and spread over Syria, Egy])t, and Persia. The thiX'C following centuries sufficed not only to expend their energy, but to steep them in the luxury and enervation of those nations whom they had subdued, more in consequence of the vices of the conquered races than from their oAvn jirowess. The Arabs in their tuni made w;iy for the irru}»tiou of the great Turkish or Tartar tribes, who, from beingsimple shepherds pasturing their flocks on the grassy i)lains of Upper Asia, became a race of conquerors extending their victorious amis over the fairest part of the inhabited globe. After three centuries of continued ]irogress, Turkish govcrnoj-s ruled over all the Mahometan kingdoms of the East, extending from the Nile and the Adriatic to the mouth of the Gauges. 'J'hus we find in the earlier Mahometan architecture of Egypt a jmrcly Arabic elaboration of the l^vzaiitine style: but with a gradual introduction of a Tartar element under the Memlook Sultans. In J'ersia the same was probably the case ; but in India the Arabic phase is

CiiAi'. IV. INDIA. 413 entirely lost; and wlien we first meet with examples uf Mahometan architecture in this country, it is a Tartar Inrm oi the older Sassanian art. Those Moslems who couquercd India were from first to last of Tartar origin — Toorks, Fathans, and Moguls. No Ai-ab, and indeed no purely Persian race, ever crossed the boundary during ihat period, and the conseipience is, that we find there a combination of Tartar and Hindu architecture, differing in many essential points ficom all other foims of Saracenic art, though resembling the Persian more than any other. The principal local difterence arises from its being foimded on the Hindu, or rather on the Jaina st^de ; but the great essential characteristic is the miiversal prevalence of tombs, and of the forms arising from this peculiarity. In Egypt and in Persia the tombs appear timidly, and as if attached to the mos(pies. In India it more generally happens that the mosques are attached to the tombs ; the latter being by far the noblest and most important buildings now found in India, and those which give form and character to the style. Ghazni. Towards the latter part of the 9th century the power of the Caliphs of Bagdad was sinking into that state of rapid decline which is the fate of all Eastern })owers. During the reign of Al Motamed, 870-891, Egypt became independent, and the northern province of Bokhai'a threw off the yoke under Nasr ben Aluned, the governor appointed by the ( "alijih, the descendant of Saman, a robber chief, who declared and maintained his independence, and so formed the Samanian dynasty. After about a ccntiuy of existence, Sabuktagin, a Turkish slave belonging to a general of one of the last of the Samanian kings, rendered himself also independent of his master, and established himself in Ghazni, of which he was governor, founding the well-known dynasty of Ghaznavides. His successor Mahmoud, a.d. 977-1030, is one of the best-known kings in Indian history, owing to his brilliant campaigns in India, and more especially that one in which he destroyed the celebrated temple of Somnath. On his return from an earlier campaign, in which he sacked the town of Muttra, Ave learn from Ferishtah that the king oi'dered a magnificent mostpie to be built of marble and granite, afterwards known by the name of the Celestial Bride. Pie founded a university neai* to it. When the nobility of Ghazni perceived the taste of their king in architecture, they also endeavoured to vie with one another in the magnificence of their palaces, as well as in the public buildings which were raised for the embellishment of the city. " Thus," continues the historian, " the capital was in a short time ornamented with mosques, porches, fountains, aqueducts, resei'voirs, and cisterns, beyond any city in the East." The plain of Ghazni still shows the remains of all this splendour ; and in the dearth of information regarding Persian art of that age, a

414 SARACENIC ARCHTTECTUKE. Book IX. knc»wledge of this would be one of the most interesting and vahiable contril)ntions we could receive. These ruins, however, have not been as yet cither examined or described;' and even the tomb of the Great ]\lahnK)ud is unknown to us, except by name," notwitlistanding the celebrity it acquired from the removal of its gates to India at the termination of our disastrous cam]>aigns in that country. I'liese are of Deodar pine,* and the car\-ed ornaments on them are so similar to those on the mosque of Ebn Touloun at Cairo, as not only to prove their being of the same age, but also to show how similar the modes of decoration were at these two extremities of the Moslem empire at that time. Two minars still adoni the plain outside the city, and form, if not the most striking, at least the most prominent of the niins of that city. Neither of them were ever attached to any mosques : they are indeed pillars of victor}', or Jnya Sthamhas,* like those in India, and are such as we might expect to find in a coimtry so long Buddhist. One of them Avas erected by Mahmoud himself; the other was built, or at least finished, by Masoud, one of his immediate successors.* The lower part of Ihese towers is of a star-like form — the ]dan being a])j)arcntly that of two squares placed diagonally the one over the other. The u]tper part, rising to the height of about 140 ft. from the groimd, is circular; both are of brickwork, covered with ornaments of terra-cotta of extreme elaboration and beauty, and retaining its shai-pness to the present day. Several other minars of the same (dass are found farther west, even as far as the roots of the Caucasus,'^ which, like these, were pillars of victttiy, erected by the conquerors on their battle-fields. None of these have the same architectural merit as those of Ghazni, at least in their present state, though it may be that their ornaments, having been in stucco or some perishable material, haA'e disappeared, leaving iLs now only the skeleton of what they were. The weakness of Mahmoud's successors left the Indians in repose for more than a century and a half; and, like all Eastern dynasties, the Ghaznavides were gradually sinking to inevitfiblc decay, but their fall was ]>reci])itated by the crimes of one of them, which were fearfully avenged l»y the destiiiction of their empire and capital by Ala lul deen, iind the final supercession of their race by that of Ghori, in the person of Shahab ud deen, in the year 1183. ' It is very much to be regretted that not one arches in the background appear to be tlie single olficer accnmpaniod our aniiies, when only part that belongs to the 11th centui-y. they passed and re|)asscd over Ghazni, with ^ The tradition that these gates were of sutlicient tiste and knowledge to appreciate sandal-wood, and brought from Somnath, is the interest of these ruins ; and it is to be entirely disproved by the fact of their being hoped, if an opi)ortunity should again occur, of the local jjine-wood, as well as by the style that their in]pr)rtince to the history of art in of decoration, which has no resemblance to the East will not be overlooked. Hindu work. * The sketch of the tomb published by * See i)p. 6, 81, &c. M. Vigiie in his Travels in Afghanistan gives * See translation of the inscription on these too confined a i>iirtion of it to enable us to minai-s, J.A.S.B., No. i;54, for 1843. judge either of its fonii or detail. The gate * Two are re|)resented by Dubois de Montin front is probably modern, and the foiled jicreux, Voyage autoui- du Caucase.

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Chap. IV. liNDlA. 415 u4•/|iiiJ-^^,(l(#»*'*^ -1 . #^vCI^ 334. Minar at Ghazni. From a drawing by G. T. Vigiie, Esq. With all tlie vigour of a new race, the Ghorians set about the coii•{uest of luclia. After sustaining a defeat in the 3'ear ll'Jl, Shahal) ud dcen again entered India in 1193, when he attacked and defeated I'irthay, Raja of Delhi. This success was followed by the conquest of Canouge iu 1104; and after the fall of these two, the greatest capitals and empires in the jteninsida, India may be said to have been conquered before his death, which happened iu 120G. At his death his great empire fell to pieces, and India fell to the share of Kootub ud deeu Ibek. This jjrince was originall}' a Turkish slave ; afterwards he became one of tShahab ud deen's generals, and contribiited greatly by his talents and military skill to the success of his master. He and his successor, Altumsh, continued nobly the woi-k

410 SAUACENIC AUCHITECTURE. Book IX. so successfully begun, and before the death of the latter, in 1235, the euiiiirc! (if iKirtheni Indi;i had permanently passed from the hands of the Hindus to those of their Mahometan eonquerore. For three centuries the empire continued under a succession of Turkish, or as they are ustxally called, of Pathan dynasties. These monarelis exhibited a continued vigour and energy very unusiial in the East, and they not only sustained but increased and consolidated this newly accpiired accession to the dominions of the faithfid, when, in 1494, Baber, the 4th in descent from Tamerlane, invaded Hindostan, and finally established the celebrated dynasty of the INIoguls, which during six succeeding reigns, extending over the extraordinary period of more than two centuries, reached a degree of s])lendour and of solid power almost unknowni in the East. On the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the empire fell to pieces, and was a prey to anarchy till after the battle of Plassyin 1757, when it virtually fell into the hands of the English. We have now held it for nearl}- a century, but whether for good or for evil remains to be seen. Certain it is that our inlluence has been fatal as far as architecture or art is concerned. Wherever our power is fairly established, the natives have ceased to build with taste, and we have even laboured to obliterate all traces of former architectural beaiity. It may be that the good we have done may more than compensate for this ; but it is painful to think that this has been gained at the sacrifice of much that was beautiful and refined. KOOTUB. By far the most interesting group of ruins that exist in India, or perhaps in any i)art of the world, is that which is grouped round the tall colnnni of Victory which Kootub erected at Delhi within the precincts of the palace of the luifortunate Pirthay Paja, to celebrate his conquest of the Hindus. Even in situation these ruins are singularly beautiful, for they stand on the gentle slope of a hill overlooking a plain that once had been a]>parently a lake, and afterwards became the site of three successive cajjitals of the East. In front arc the ruins of Togluekabad, the gigantic fort of an old Pathan chief ; and farther north the plain is still covered with the iTjins of Old Delhi, the capital of the later Pathans and earlier Moguls. Beyond that, at the distance of 9 or 10 miles, are seen the towers of .Shahjehanabad, the modern capital, and still the seat of the nominal nionaichy of the Great Mogul. Still farther north are situated the civil station and cantonments of the British ruleis of the country. It is a fortunate circumstance that these were not placed here, as at Agra, in the midst of the ruins, for it is to this that we owe their preservation. But for the distance it is probable that marble columns would have been taken for all purposes for which they might have been available, with a total disregard for the beaiity and ijiterest of the remains thereby anniliilated. Even as it is, the buildings belonging to the celebrated .Shahlimar gardens, which were the only buildings of importance in the neighbourhood of the English

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ClIAP. IV INDIA. 417 .station, have disappeared ; but this is of slight importance as compared with tlic rnins to tho south.' 'I'lie gent-ral arrangement of the principal ruins will be understood iVuiu woodcut No. 335, which was taken with great care, though the ^?w%-^ a tj U U J Cj 0 uuuui; UUD '--m — m^wf 1 0 li o u c _ A a y a a o a a D ^:l ,\ : ■^ 1 J -. 'Z 0 U C, J"l c -^ ooaaoaoa a a a a uouaaaaaoaoa a -J a a O a a a a qdoQ o ooaaaao 335. I'lun of Kuins in Old liellii. From a jilaii liy tlic Author. Scalo inn If. to 1 in. ' At one time a hotter influence seems to have jirevailed, and some money \vn,< spent ill re])airing tlie K'ootuh I\Iinar. It is true this was done in the worst jiossible taste. A door was added in the true style of Strawberry Hill (!othic ; and a kiosk was stuck on its summit copied from the garden pavilion of some moilcrn dwelling in Delhi, and balustrades added to the halconics in the .same taste. A dome, too, surmounled the whole ; hut as this was of lath and i)Iaster, or some such material, it lias disajipeared long ago, and it would be well if the other improvements had so also; hut the masonry was rcjiaired and consolidated, and we must therefore be thankful that so much was done, and not grumble .it the mode. 2 E

418 SAHACENIC AltCHlTECTl'KE. Book IX." scale to whicli it has been necessaiy to reduce it prevents all its peculiarities from Leing seen. To understand it, it Ls necessary to l)ear in mind that all the pillars are of Hindu, and all the walls ol" ]\Ialnimetan architecture. It is by no means easy to determine whether the pillars now stand as ori

ClIAl'. IV. INDIA. 419 a pai't of the earliest mosque in India, I have prefened introducing it in this pkice. Tlie pillars used here are of the same order, and similar to those nsed on Mount Aim (shoAvn in woodcut iS'o. 44), excejit that those at Old Delhi are much richei' and more claboiate. They belong probably to the 9th or 10th century, and are among the few examples to be found in India that seem to be overloaded with oniamont — there not being one inch of plain surface from the capital to the base. Still the ornament is so sharp and so beautifully executed, and the effect, in their present state of decay and ruin, so picturesque, that it is very difficult to find fault with what is so beautiful. In some instances the figures that were on the shafts of the pillars have been cut off, as offensive to Mahometan strictness with regard to idolatrous images ; but on the roof and less seen parts, the crossed-legged figures of the Jaina saints, and other emblems of that religion, may still be detected. :!37. Central Raiigo of Arches ul the Kootub, from a sketch by the Author. The glory of the mosque, however, is not in these Hindu remains, but in the great range of arches on the eastern side, extending north and south for about 385 ft., and consisting of 3 greater and

420 SARACENIC AKCHITECTUIJE. Book IX. are generally very much mined. Beliind this, at the distance of 32 ft., are the fdundations of another wall ; Imt whether intended to be caiTicil as hii;h as that in front is by no means appaient. It seems probable that the Hindu pillars between the two screens were the only part that Avas proposed to be covered, some of them beinp; built into the back part of the great arches, and all above them is quite })lain and smooth, without the least indication of any intention to construct a vault or roof of any sort. Besides this, a roof is by no means an essential part of a mosque; a wall facing Mecca is all that is required, and frequently in India is all that is built, though sometimes an enclosure is added in fiont of it to protect the worshippers from inteiTui)tion. L'oofed colonnades are of course not only convenient but ornamental accomi)animents, yet far from being indispensable. The history of this mosque, as told in its construction, is as curious as anything about it. It seems the Afghan conquerors had a tolerably distinct idea that pointed arches were the time form of architectural openings ; but being without science sufficient to constiuct them, they left the Hindu architects and builders whom they employed to follow their owTi devices as to the mode by which this form was to be attained. Tlie Hindus, however, up to this time had never built arches, nor indeed did they for centuries afterwards. Accordinglj' they proceeded to make the pointed openings on the same principle upon which they built their domes. They carried them up in horizontal courses as far as they could, and then closed them by long slabs meeting at the top, the construction being in fact that of the arch of the aqueduct at Tusculum, shown in woodcut No. 239. The same architects were • emjdoyed by their masters to ornaMient the ftices of these arches, and did ■ 1 by copying and repeating the oma' ments on the pUlars and friezes on the » opposite sides of the court, covering the whole with a lace-work of intricate and delicate carving, such as no mosque ever received before or since ; and though it is perhaps in a great measure thrown away and lost when used on such a scale, it is without a single exception the most exquisite s|)ccini('u of its class kno\Mi to exist anywhere. The stone being particularly hard and gnod, it retains it« freshness to the present day, and .>"«. Miii.u 1)1 IvMDiub. I'Viiiii a sketch by the Author.

CiiAi'. IV. IN'DIA. 421 is only destroyed above the arches where the fiiulty Hindu conslrnctioii has superinduced ])reinature decay. The niiuar is 48 ft, 4 in. in diameter at the base, and, wlien measured in 1794, was 242 ft. in lieight.' Even then, however, the cai)ital was ruined, so that some 10 or perhaps 20 ft. must be added in tliis to complete its original elevation. It is ornamented b}^ four boldly projecting Itiilccmies; one at !H), the second at 140, the third at 180, and the fourth at 203 ft. from tlie groinid ; between which are richly sculptured raised belts containing inscriptions. In the lower story the projecting flutes are alternately angular and circular, in the second circidai", and in the third angular only ; above this the minar is plain, but ])rineipally of white marble with belts of the red sandstone of which tlie three lower stories are composed. The only building known to be taller than this that the Mahometans ever erected is the minaret of the mos(iue of Hassan, at Cairo (]>. .S94 and woodcnt No. 320) ; but as this pillar at Old Delhi is a wholly independent building, it has a far nobler appearance, and both in design and finish far surpasses its Egyptian rival, as indeed it does any building of its class, so far as I know, in the whole world. At the distance of 470 ft. north of this one a second minar was commenced, of twice its dimensions, or 297 ft. in circmnference. It was only carried up to the height of 40 ft., and abandoned probably in consequence of the removal of the seat of government to Togluckabad or elsewhere. The date of all these buildings is known with sufficient exactness from the inscriptions that cover them,'^ from which it appears that the inner court was enclosed by Shahab ud deen. The central range of arches (woodcut No. 337) was built by Kootid:> Tid deen; the wings by Altumsh, whose tomb is behind the northern range ; and the minar either built, or at least finished, by the same monarch : they extend therefore from A.n. 1196-1235, but were left incomplete at the death of the last-named king. Having described at siich length the ruins of the first buildings the Moslems erected in the old imperial city of the Hindus, we ]iass over the mosques at Canouge, Dhar, Mandoo, -launpoi'e, (kc, which were built in the same style ; for, though fidl of interest in themselves, they do not possess sufficient individual character to requiie detailed descriptions of each. Nor will it be necessary again to allude to the Pillars of Victory which the Moslems erected at Gour.^ Dowlutabad,'' Coel, Hissar,* or elsewhere, wherever indeed they wished to signalise and commemorate their tiiumph over the Infidels. ' Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 31o. ■• Cajit.

421 >•> SARACENIC AnCIllTECTl'KE. I'tntK IX. Jaunpore. About two centuries after the conquest of India by the ^Moslems, Khoja Jehan, the Soubahdar or governor of the province in wliicb .liimipore is situated, assumed independence, and established a dynasty which maintained itself for nearly a century, from a.d. 1307 to about 1478,— and though then reconquered by the sovereign of Delhi, it still retained a sort of semi-independence till finally incor^wrated in the ]\Iogul empire by the great Akbar. During this period it was adorned by several large mosques, three of which still remain tolerably entire, and a considerable number of tombs, palaces, and other buildings, besides a fort and bridge, all of which are as remarkable specimens of their class of architecture as are to be found anpvhere in India. The Jumma ]\Iesjid, or Friday mosiiue. was commenced by tShah Ibrahim, a.d. 1419, but not completed till the reign of Ilosein 14511478. It consists of a court-yard 220 ft. by 214, on the western side of which is situated a range of liuildings, the central one covered by a dome 40 ft. in diameter, in fi-ont of which stands a gate pyramid or pro])yhn,^ of almost Kgvplinn mass and outline, lising to the height of 339. View of Lateral Gateway of Jumnm Mcsjid, Jaunpore. ' A view of it, not a good one, is given in l)aiii''IlV- (.Infes.

Chap. IV. INDIA. 423 8(5 ft. Tliis o-ato pyramid by its elevation .supplied the place of a minaret, which none of these luosqucs possess. On each side of the dome is a compartment divided into two stories by a stone floor siippoi-ted on pillars ; and beyond this on each side is an apartment, 40 ft. by 60, covered by a bold pointed vault with ribs, and so constructed that its upper surface forms the external roof of the building, which in Gothic vaults is scarcely ever the case. The three sides of the court-yard were suiTOunded by double colonnades two stories in height internally, but with three on the exterior, the floor of the court-yard being raised to the height of the lower story. On each face was a handsome gateway ; one of which is rei:)resented in woodcut No. 339, which gives a fair idea of the style : the greater part of the eastern side of the court has been taken down and removed by the English to repair station-roads and bridges, for which in their estimation these pillars are admirably adapted. The smallest of the mosques is the Lall Durwaza or Ked Gate. It is in the same 340. Lull Durwuza Musque, Jaunpore. style as the others ; and its propylon— represented in woodcut ^o. 340 — displays not only the bold massiveness with which these

424 SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. mosques wore erected, Imt shows also that strange adniixtiire of Hindu and Mahometan architcetnro which ]ici"\aded the styk; during the whole ])eriod of its eontinuauce in India. Of the three mosques remaining at Jaunpore, the Atiihi Mesjid is the most ornate and the most beautifuh The colonnades surroundingits court aic four aisles in depth, the outer columns of which are double square pillars, as are also those adjoining the interior of the court. The three intermediate rows are single square columns. This is altogether so like an Indian arrangement, that I at one time was half inclined to agi-ee with Baron Hugel, and fanc}- that this really was an old Buddhist monastery. Its gateways, however, which arc jiurely .Saracenic, are the principal ornaments of the outer court, and the western face is adorned by 3 propylons similar to that represented in the last woodcut, but richer and more beautiful, Avhile its interior domes and roofs iuv sui)erior to any other specimen of Mahometan art 1 am acquainted with of so early an age. The other buildings liardly require particular mention, though, a« transition specimens from one style to another, these Jaunpore examples are well worthy of illustration, and in themselves possess a simplicity and giundcur not often met Avith in this style. An ap])earance of strengtli, moreover, is imparted to them by their sloping walls, which is foreign to our general conception of Saracenic art. iVmong the Pathans of India the expression of strength is as characteristic of the style as massiveness is of thot of the Normans in England. In India it is found conjoined with a degree of retinement seldom met with elsewhere, and totally free from the coarseness usually combined with vigour and boldness of design in other countries. GouE. The city of Gour, in Bengal, long the Hindu capital of the lower country, and for more than three centuries the seat of an inde])endent I'atlian kingdom, possesses within its walls and in its neighbourhood a series of ruins, principally mosques, avcII Avorthy of attentive study. ( )wing perha])s to the materials being principally brick, they do not possess the largeness and grandeur of the Jaunjiore examples. The influence of Hindu art here shoAvs itself more in an extreme elaboration of minute detail than in any influence it exerted on the original character of the I'athan conceptions. The worst feature in the designs of the Gour mosques is, that, like that at ( 'ordoba, they Avant variety and subordination of parts. The great Adinah. built by Sekander Shah (a.d. l.'JoS to i;i67), for instance, is a building oUU ft. north and south by 300 east and Avest, containing a court-yard, surromided on all sides by a thick brick Avail, cut up into 88 similar arcadcd openings, only one of Avhich, that on the centre fivcing ;\Iecca, is larger and more dignified than the rest. The roof in like manner is supported by 2tit; pilhirs of black marlde, of a bold and pleaKing design, it must be confessed, but Avanting in variety ; and these and the walls support no less than 385 domes, all sianilar in de

CUAI'. IV. INDIA. 425 si

42(3 sAiiACENic AKciirrFArrnij:. Took IX. are supported each by twelve pillars. The pillars are all equally spaced, the architect having omitted, for the sake of unifonnity, to widen the central avenues on the intersection of which the domes stand. It follows from this that the four sides of the octagon supporting the dome, which are parallel to the sides of the court, are shorter than the four diagonal sides. Intemally this produces a very awkward appearance ; but this could not have been avoided except by nmiiing into another ditiiculty, — that of having oblong spaces at the intersections of the wider aisles with the narrower, to which the smaller domes must have been fitted. Perhaps on the whole the architect took the less inconvenient course of the two. The interior of the court is represented woodcut No. 342, and 342. Court-yard of Great Mosque at Mandno. From a Sketch by the Author. for simple giandeur and expression of power it may perhaps be taken a.s one of tho very best specimens now to be found in India. It is, however, fast falling to decay, and a few 3ears more may deprive it of most of that beauty with which it impressed me when I visited it in lH2!t. Ahmedabad. Tlie city of Ahmedabad, the Moslem capital of Guzerat, is as lich ill s]il('ndid mosques as .Taunjiore or any of the provincial cajiitals of India, and their style is ajs distinctive of their locality ii.s in any other instance in this country. The town was built by Ahmed Shah, the second king of his race, wlio reigned from 1412 to 144;j. He founded the great mosque, which for extent and beaut}- of detail seems to surpass eveiything of its class, even in India. In this instance the style is Jaina, and the archi

Chap. IV INDTA. 427 tcctnro may bo said to be that of tho contemporary temple at Sadrce (woodcuts Nos. 54, 55), with details bori-owed from tho still older tcmi)les at Abn (woodcut Ko. 44). This peculiarity arose not only fvdiu tho locality, but also because the dynasty was originally of Hindu race, and clung to their own style and old feelings notwithstanding their conversion to Mahomodanism. The admixture of the elaborate and graceful forms of Jaiua with the larger and taller proportions of Saracenic architecture makes this style as pleasing, if not more so, than any of the various forms the style takes in India. All the Alunedabad mosques are similar in design, and vary only in size. They consist of a courtyard surrounded on three sides by open colonnades, tho fourth occupied by the mosque itself. This is entered from the court by three large doors, and is suimounted by three domes of somcAvhat flat outline externally, but internally as richly ornamented as any the Jains ever built. These are invariably supported, like those of the Jains, on 8 pillars, made up to a square with 4 more, so that the smaller mosques have 86 pillars internally, the larger probably twice that number. In all instances the central compartment is raised consideiably, and the light Section of Mosquo at Ahmedabad. admitted through the double colonnade in the roof, as shown in the diagram (woodcut No, 343). This arrangement is similar to the hypethron of the Egyptians explained above (pages 230 d ser/.), and is identical ^Wth that illustrated in woodcut No. 112 as having existed at Kliorsal)ad. The minarets of these mosques are attached to the central compartment, flanking each side of the principal entrance, and being of a bold Saracenic outline, covered with the richest and mcjst elaborate Hindu carving, they are the most gorgeous things of their kind in India, though neither so graceful as those of Cairo nor so elegant as some at Agra and Delhi.

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428 SAHACKNIC AUCHITECTUUK. Book IX. Tin.' (iHzxTat (Uniasty lx'iii

Chai". IV. INDIA. 429 Tlu; fiiratlos of these moscpu's too liecame far more ornamental and more frequently encrnsted witli marbles, and always ornamented Avitli sculpture of a rich and beautiful character; the angles of the buildingwere also relieved by little kiosks, supported by four richly bracketed pillars, but never with minarets, Avhich, so far as I know, were never attached to mosques during the Tathan period. The call to prayer was made from the roof, or at Jaunpore perhaps from the top of the great propylon ; but I do not know one single instance of a minaret built for such a purpose, though they were, as we know, universal in Egypt and elsewhere long bc'forc this period, and were considered nearly indispensable in the works of the Moguls very shortly afterwards. They seem to have regarded the minar as the Italians viewed the Campanile, more as a symbol of power and of victory than as an adjunct to a church, which it became under the true Gothic architects of the North. When the Moguls had established themselves on the throne of the defeated Pathans, in the early part of the 16th centiirj^ they found the style of architecture wholly emancipated from the trammels of Indian art, from which it had sprung, and forming in itself a complete and uniform system almost without any foreign admixture. In this form the style was adopted by Humayun, and characterises all his buildings. Akbar, his son, seems to have had a singular predilection for Hindus and Hinduisms, and nowhere did he show this more than in his buildings, which present the most picturesque assemblages possible of I\Iahometan forms and exigencies carried out with Hindu feeling and Hindu richness and elegance of design. His two next successors, Jehangir and Shah Jehan, wholly abandoned this peculiar style, which they seem to have rcgaidod as a retrograde step, and pursued the more legitimate path of art, reforming its details and improving the elegance of their designs. By these means their buildings, especially their mosques, became models of elegance and also of appropriateness. The purj)ose of every part was fully and distinctly expressed, and with a fitness not often found elsewhere in this style. Thus the principal side of tlieir mosques is always an independent building, generally covered by three domes, of the bulb-like form which these monarchs first introduced into India, and is adorned with minarets. The side colonnades with their gateways, which have again become important buildings, are always kept in graceful subordination to the western mass, and the whole is so carefull}studied and so elegantly ornamented, that it is frequently impossible to suggest an improvement. But with all this, I question much if almost every artist and many architects would not prefer the clumsy splendour of the Pathans, Avitli all their rude but manly magnificence, to the refined but somewhat emasculated grace of the ]\Ioguls. My own feeling is entirely with the former ; and even Akbar's works, picturesque though they are, seem more the result of caprice than the honest endeavours to attain beauty that mark those of the I'athans. Notwithstanding this, it seems more than doubtfid if Cairo, or any western city, can boast of mosques so beautiful as those of Futtehpore

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430 SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. r.ut-iK IX. 3 < U3 B o 3 O

CiiAi-. IV. INDIA. 431 Sicri ur tliuso of tlio irui)criiil cities Agra and Delhi, ^Vo have not yet, however, reached that poiut of knowledge of the style when comparative criticism is easy, or at least easily conveyed to others. Perhaps the finest of these IMognl mosques is that built by Akbar at his favourite residence of Futtehpore ISieri, near Agra ; but it cannot be considered so complete a type of the style as the Jtimma Musjid, or great Mosque of Delhi, built by Shah Jehan on his removing the capital to its present site. Its appearance will be understood from the view on the opposite page, taken from one of tlie palace gates. It explains all the })arts by which a mosque of this age was usually characterised,— the western part with its lofty centre, three domes, and two minarets, and the court-yard with its open colonnades, its towers at the angles, and three gateways, the eastern one being always more splendid than those on the north and south. The whole thus forms a gi-oup intelligible at the first glance, and as an architectural object possessing a variety of outline and play of light and shade which few buildings can equal. The terrace on which this mosque is raised, as well as all the essential parts of it, are composed of fine red sandstone, but the principal fagade is ornamented with panels and bands of white marble, and the interior is almost wholly composed of the same material. The subordinate mosques have not all the parts here shown, nor of course are they on so large a scale ; the general design, however, is in most cases similar, and, even when many parts are omitted, the remaining parts are so subdued and arranged that the completeness of the whole is not impaired. By far the most elegant mosque of this age — perhaps indeed of any period of Moslem art — is the Mootee Mesjid, or I'earl mosque, built by Shah Jehan in the palace of Agia. Its dimensions are considerable, being extemally 235 ft. east and west by 190 north and south, and the court-yard 155 ft. square. Its mass is also considerable, as the whole is raised on a ten-ace of artificial construction, by the aid of which it stands well out from the surrounding l)uil dings of the fort. Its beauty resides in its court-yard, which is wholly of white marble from the pavement to the summit of its domes. In desigii it somewhat resembles the great Delhi mosque represented in the last woodcut, except that the minarets are omitted, and in this example the side gateways are only recesses. The western part, or mosque properly so called, is of white marble inside and out, and, except an inscription from the Koran inlaid with black marble as a frieze, it has no ornament whatever beyond the lines of its own graceful architecture. It is, in fact, so far as I know, less ornamented than any other building of the same pretensions, forming a singular contrast with the late Iniildings of this stj-le in Spain and elsewhere, which depend almost wholly for their effect on the rich exuberance of the ornament with Avhich they are overlaid. The bigoted Aurungzebe built many large and splendid mosques ; but even in his day the style was visibly on the decline, and, though many gorgeous edifices of this class have since then been erected

432 SARACP:NIC ARCHITECTI'RE. Rook IX. at Onde. Ilyliabjul, ami otlu.-r MusKiu capiUiLs, their style is so JegraileJ aiul »(»rnipt, tluit they will iwit bear to be mentioned with those we have been describing. It will be needless, therefore, to attempt to recapitulate their names and dimensions. Accordingly we ]iroceed to speak of the tombs and other works of their noVder predecessors, which it is necessary to describe to make ^^\ a complete picture of the style. Tombs. As has been frequently remarked in the previous pages of this work, the great architectural peculiarity of the Tartar or Mongolian races is their tomb-building pi'opensity, in which they are so strongly distinguished from the Arian, and also from the great Semitic fomilies. with whom they divide the greater ]iart of the habitable gh)be. Nowhere is this more forcibly illustrated than in India — where the* tombs of the Turks and ]\Ioguls form a complete and unbroken series of architectural monuments from the first years of the I\Ioslem invasion to the present hour. The tombs of the Turks or Pathans are less splendid than those of the ]\Ioguls ; but nevertheless the whole series is singularly interesting, the tombs being far more niunerous than the mosques. Generally speaking, also, they are more artistic in design, and fieipiently not only larger but more splendidly decorated than the buildings exclusively devoted to prayer. The princes of the Tartar races, in can-ying out tlieir love of tombs, made it their practice to build their own in their lifetime. In doing this they rejected the Egyptian mode of preparing dark and deeji chambers in the heart of the }ock, or of the massive pyramid. The Tartars, on the other hand, built their sepulchres of such a character as to serve for places of enjoyment for themselves and their friends during their lifetime, and only when they could enjoy them no longer they became the solemn resting-places of their mortal remains. The usual process for the erection of these structures is for the king or noble who intends to provide himself a tomb to enclose a garden outside the city walls, generally with high crenellated walls, and with one or more splendid gateways; and in the centre of this he crect,s a scpiare or octagonal building, crowned by a dome, and in the more spleiulid examples with smaller and dome-roofed ai)artments on four of the sides or angles, the other four being devoted to entrances. Tills building is- generally situated on a lofty square teirace, from which radiate four bi'oad alleys, generally with marble-] )aved canals ornamented with fountains; the angular spaces are planted with cypresses and other evergreens and fruit trees, making uji one of those formal but beautiful gardens so characteristic of the East. During the lifetime of the founder, the central building is called a Barrah Durrie, or IV'stal hall, and is so used as a place of recreation and feasting by him and his friends. At his death its destination is changed, — the founder's remains are inteiTcd beneath the central dome. Sometimes his favourite wife lie.s

Chap. IV. INDIA. 433 beside him ; but more generally liis family and relations are buried beneath the collateral ddmes. When once used a« a place of bnrial, its vaults never again lesound with festive mirth. The care of the building is handed over to priests and cadims, who gain a scanty subsistence by the sale of the fruits of the garden, or the alms of those who come to visit the last resting-place of their friend or master, i'erfect silence now takes the place of festivity and mirth. The beaut}^ of the surrounding objects combines with the repose of the place to produce an eflfect as graceful as it is solemn and appropriate. Though the tombs, with the remains of their enclosures, are so numerous throughout all India, the Tajc Mehal, at Agra, is almost the only one that retains its garden in anything like its pristine beauty, and there is not perhaps in the Avhole world a scene where nature and art so successfully C(>ml)ine to produce a perfect work of art as within the precincts of this far-famed mausoleum. The oldest authentic tomb in India is that built for himself by Altumsh, behind the great range qf arches of the Kootub, as shown iix the plan (woodcut No. 335). Though small, its workmanship is, like that of the mosque itself, of exquisite beauty; but either it was left unfinished, or has been silbsequently ruined, as it has now no roof. A more beautiful tomb than even this is the other, shown on the left hand of the same plan : at least a century more modern, though its date and the name of its fomider are unknowai. Its walls internally are decorated with a diaper pattern of unrivalled excellence, and the mode in which the square is changed into an octagon is more simply elegant than any other example I am acquainted Avith in India. It is earlier than the penderitive showTi in the ■woodcut No, 344-; but the two may be taken as favourable specimens, this one of the simple, the other of the more ornate mode of effecting the change of form necessary to place a circular dome on a square apartment. Both these forms are much more 2 F 116. Pendentive in Tomb at Old Delhi.

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4;u SAIIACEINIC AUCIIITKC Tl'HE. Book IX. bcaiitilul tlian tlir usual honcA'c-uinb work of the later .S])ani.sh Arabs, or evi'U than the pendcutives in the nio.sqiie of Tlassaii at Cairo. The only foreinibatOI(l Di-llii. UTien that stern old warrior, Togluck Shah (1321), founded the new Delhi, which still bears his name, he built himself a tomb, not in a garden, but in a .strongly fortified citadel in the middle of an artificial lake. The .sloping walls and almost Egyptian .solidity of this mausoleum. Combined with the bold and massive towers of the fortification that suiTound it, form a picture of a wairior's tomb unrivalled any

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('ii.\i>. IV. INDIA. 435 wliei'o, aiul ;i singular I'oiitnist with the I'h'g'aiit and hixuiiaiit garden toiubs of the more settled mid peaceful dynasties that succeeded. The tomb of 8her Shah, the last of the Pathans, is situated in the middle of an artiticial tank at Sasseram, near Benares, and is one of the largest, though certainly not the best, of the Pathan tombs. In design it is very similar to that represented in woodcut No. 347, but the central apartment is an octagon 100 ft. in diameter. It stands too on a massive square terrace, each angle of which is ornamented with an octagonal kiosk, and the various smaller pavilions and kiosks make up an architectural object of great beauty and pictuiesqueness of effect. As a general rule, the Pathan tombs are complete examples of the Saracenic style, and show but slight traces of Hindu d(?sig-n. But this was not always the case ; and, as in their earlier mosques, they sometimes appropriated the remains of ,)aina architecture to save themselves the trouble of erecting the w^hole building from original materials. Frequently these compound edifices are composed of only 4 pillars supporting a small dome ; but more generally, as in that represented woodcut No. 348, of 12, arranged as the Jaina domes usually are,' consisting of an octagon worked out to a square, and supporting a dome of slightly pointed form. :uH. I'atliaii Tomb at Sheprei' near (iu.ilior. Kioni a SkoUli by tlio Aiitlior. As Avill be remarked, the tomb is almost an exact counterpart in design with that at Ilalicamassus (woodcut No. 292), showang a ' See p. 72 et seqq. 2 F 2

436 SARACENIC AKCHITECTURE. Book IX. curious persistence in the use of this arranu;ement, though it must be confessed it is one of the most beautiful ever invented. At first sight the upper part of the buiUling looks somewhat too massive for the substnicture ; but its destination as a tomb renders this ajiproin-iate, and was apparently intended by the architect to produce that solenmity which the closed walls impart to the ordinary forms of tjcpulchies. The tomb of Ilumayun Shah, the first of the Mog\ils who was buiied in India, still stands tolerably entire among the ruins of Old ]Jelhi, of which indeed it forms the principal and most striking object. That of Akbar, at Secundra, near Delhi, is, like all his buildings and doings, exceptional, and unlike those of any of his race, but still of great magnificence. The latter tomb is pyramidal in external foim. The outer or lower terrace is 320 ft. square by 30 in height, and its architecture is bold and massive. On this terrace stands another far more ornate, measuring ISO ft. on each side, and U ft. 9 in. in height. A third and a fourth of similar design, and respectively 15 ft. 2 in. and 14 ft. 6 in. high, stand on this, all these being of red sandstone. ^Vithin and above the last is a white marble enclosure, 157 ft. each Avay, or externally just half the length of the lowest terrace ; the outer wall of this is entirely composed of marble trellis-work of the most beautiful patterns. Inside it is surrounded by a colonnade of the same material ; in the centre of this cloister, on a raised platform, is the tombstone of the founder, a splendid piece of the most beautifid arabesque tracery. This however is not the true burial-place ; but the mortal remains of this great king repose under a far plainer tombstone in a vaidted chamber in the basement 35 ft. square, exactly rmder the simulated tomb that adonis the summit of the mausoleum. The typical example of the tombs of this race is the celebrated Taje Mehal— the tomb which Shah Jehan erected at Agra, to contain the remains of his favourite wife, Moomtaza Mehal, meaning to erect a more splendid mauscdeum for himself on the op])osite side of the river. Uut this was not cairied into elfect, and he rests in this same sepulchre beside his wife, she occupying the centre, a place of honour due to her precedence in the race of death. The plan and section (woodcuts No. 340 and No. 350) explain sufficiently the general arrangement and structural peculiarities of the tomb or principal building of the group. This is, however, only a part of the whole design, and cannot be judged of by itself without its accompaniments. The enclosure, including the gardens and outer court, is a parallelogram of 18r)0 ft. by more than 1000.' The outer court, surrounded by arcades and adonied by 4 gateways, is an oblong, occujtying in length the whole bieadth of the enclosure by about 450 ft. in depth. The principal gateway, measuring 110 ft. by 140, leads from the court to the gardens, which, with their marble canals and fountains and cypress-trees, are almost as beautiful as the tomb itself. ' The spction has been engraved to a small scale of rather moie than 100 ft. to 1 in. in order to bring it into the page.

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ClIAl'. IV. INDIA. 43^ m h. r 349. rUiu of Taje Mehal, Agra. From a plan by the A\itlnjr. Scale luu ll. to 1 in. 35U. Section of Tigo Jklial, Agra.

438 SAliACENlC .AKCUITECTURE. Book J. \. The tomb stands on a raised platform 18 ft, high, faced with white marble, and exactly 813 ft. square. At each comer of this terrace stands a minaret 133 ft. in height, and of the most exquisite proportions, more beautiful perhaps than any other in India. Jn the centre of the marble platfonu stands the mausoleum, a square of 18G ft., with the corners cut off to the extent of 33 ft. ? in. The centre of this is occupied by the principal dome, oH ft. in diameter and 80 ft. in height, under which is an enclosure formed by a screen of trellis-work of white marble, which is a chef-d'oeuvre of elegance in Indian art. Within this stand the two tombs. These, however, as is usual in Indian sepulchres, are not the true tombs, -the bodies rest in a vault level wdth the surface of the ground (as seen in the section) beneath the plainer tombstones placed exactly underneath those in the hall above. In every angle of the building is a smaller dome of two stories in height, 26 ft. 8 in. in diameter, and these are connected, as shown in the jjlan, by various passages and halls. The light to the central apartment is admitted only through double screens of white marble trellis-work of the most exquisite design, one on the outer, and one on the inner face of the walls. In our climate this would produce nearly complete darkness ; but in India, and in a building wholly composed of white niarl)le, this was required to temper the glare that otherwise would have been intolerable. As it is, no words can express the chastened beauty of that central chamber, seen in the soft gloom of the subdued light that reaches it through the distant and half-closed ojieniugs that surround it. A\hen used as a Ban-ah Durrie, or pleasure palace, it must always have been the coolest and the loveliest of garden retreats ; and now that it is sacred to the dead, it is the most graoefnl and the most impressive of the sepulchres of the world. It is in this building that we first find that system of inlaying wath precious stones which became the great characteristic of the stjle of the Moguls after the death of Akbar. All the spaudnls of the Taje, all the angles and more important architectural details, are heightened by being inlaid with precious stones, such as agates, bloodstones, jaspers, and the like. These are combined in wreaths, scrolls, and frets, as exquisite in design as they are beautiful in colour, and, relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, they foim the most beautiful and precious style of ornament ever adopted in architecture: though of course it is not to be compared with the intellectual beauty of Greek ornament, it certainly stands first among the purely decorative forms of architectural design. Tliis is lavishly bestowed on the tombs themselves and the screen that surrounds them, and is sparingly introduced on the mosque that forms one wing (.f the Taje, and on the fountains and surrounding buildings. The judgment indeed with which this style of ornament is apportioned to the various jiarts is almost as remarkable as the ornament itself, and conveys a high idea of the taste and skill of the Indian architects of this age. Shah Jehan's successor, Aurnngzebe, lies buried in a small hamlet just above the caves of Ellora. The spot is esteemed sacred, but the

CiiAi'. IV. INDIA. 4ai) tuiiib i.s uicau uiul iiusig'iiiticuiit l)L'yoiKl wluit wuiikl luivc .sutticcil tui' any of his nobles. He neglected, apparently, to provide for himself this necessary adjunct to a Tartar's glory, and his successors were too weak, even if they had been inclined, to supjdy th(! t)niiK,sion. Strange to say, the sacred Txdsce-tree of the Hindus has taken rout in a crevice of the brickwork, and is flourishing there as if in derision of the most bigoted persecutor the Hindus ever experienced. In addition to these Imperial tombs, the neighbourhoods t)f Agi'a and Delhi are croAvdod with the tombs of the nobles of the court, some of them scarcely less magnificent tlian those oi their masters. Among these, one erected by Etty mad doulah, the minister of Akbar, for himself, is one of the most splendid in elaboratitm, though far from being the most graceful in design. The whole is of white marble, and inlaid with precious stones in various patterns to a greater extent than oven the Taje, or perhaps than any other building in India. Besides these tombs, however, in the capital of the empire, there is scarcely a city of any importance in the whole course of- the Ganges or Jumna, even as far eastward as Dacca, that does not possess some s])ecimen of this form of architectural magnificence. Jaunpore and Allahabad are particularly rich in examples ; but Patna and Dacca possess two of the most pleasing of the smaller class of tombs that arc to be met with anywhere. The tombs of the kings of Golconda are almost as well known by repute as their diamond-mines — and certainly form a splendid gioup of mausolea, but by no means equal in taste or grandeur to the exam})les we have been alluding to. Mandoo also is rich ; its finest example being that of Hoshang Shah, who built the great mosque immediately behind which it stands. It is of white marble both inside and out, and possesses all the solidity and grandeur of Pathan design, coupled with considerable beauty of form, and an appearance of elegance derived from the material of which it is composed. Near Auningabad is one built by Auningzebe in honour of his first wife, and said then to have been an exact copy of the celebrated Taje Mehal, an assertion that has been often repeated since. The general arrangement of the body of the building and its 4 minarets is, it is true, the same ; but every detail is diffeient, and the general degradation of style in so short a period is one of the most remarkable plienomena in the history of art in the East. Something may be allowed for its being a provincial building ; lint with all this, it is difficult to understand how anything so tasteless, though so ricli. could be erected by the immediate successor of that king who built the beautiful tomb to which it has been unworthily compared. Beejapore. The now deserted city of Beejapore ' is one of the most icmarkablc among the ruined capitals of the Mahometan dynasties of India. It is ' Situated in the Deccan, about 250 miles south-east from Bonibav.

440 SAHACENIC ARCHITPXTURE. Book IX. true it iR'itlier possesses anything so elegant as the wliite marble huildings (.»!' Agra and J )elhi, nor so elaborate as the mosfiues of Ahniedabacl ; but it is unsiii-]ia.ssed from the seale of some of its edifices, and remarkable for the largefless and grandeur of design which characterise all of them. Tlio city was founded by Yusuph Khan, a son of Amurath II. of Anatolia. The first three kings did little that was remarkable ; but on the defeat of the celebrated liamraj of Yyjyanuggar, in 1564, the dynasty rose to great wealth and power, and, during the century which elapsed from that time till they fell under the sway of the tyrant Aurungzebe, they adorned their capital with many remarkable and sumptuous edifices. As might be expected from their Tartar descent, the principal of these were their tombs; and that of Mahomet, who reigned from 102G to 16*30, is not only the largest ever built by a Saracenic architect, but perhaps the very boldest and largest domical edifice now known to exist anywhere. As will be seen from the plan (woodcut No. 351), it is a plain square apartment, 135 ft. each way ; its area consequently is 18,225 square ft., while that of the Pantheon at Eome is, within the walls, only 15,833; and even taking into account all the recesses in the walls of both buildings, this is still the larger of the two. At the height of 57 ft. from the floor-line the hall begins to contract, by a series of pendentives as ingenious as beautiful, to a circular opening OTft. in diameter. The dome is erected on the platform of these ])endentives, 124 ft. in diameter, thus leaving a gallery more than 12 ft. wide all roimd the inferior. Internally, the dome is 175 ft. high, extei-nally 108, its general thickness being about 10 ft. The most ingenious and novel part of the constniction of this dome is the mode in which its lateral or outward thrust is counteracted. This was a(;com]ilished by forming the pendentives so that they not only cut oft" the angles, but, as sIioanti in the plan, their arches intersect one another, fonning a very considerable ma.ss of masonry peifectly stable in itself, and, by its weight acting inwards, counteracting any thnist that can possibly be brought to bear upon it by the pressure of the dome. If the whole edifice thus lialanced has any tendency to move, it is to fivU inwards, which from its circular form is impossible ; but the action of the weight of the pendentive being in the opj)Osite direction to that of the dome, it acts like a tie and keeps the whole in 351.

Chap. IV. INDIA. 441 e(|uilil)rium, ami that without intcrforing at all with the outline of the dome. In the Pantheon and most European domes a gi'eat mass of masonry is thrown on the haunches, entirely hiding the external form, and is a singularly clumsy expedient in every respect comi)ared with the elegant mode of hanging the weight inside. Notwithstsmding that this expedient gives the dome a perfectly stahle basis to stand upon, which no thrust can move, still, looking at the section (woodcut No. 352), its form is such that it appears almost 352. Section of Tomb of Mahomet at Beejapore. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in. paradoxical that such a building should stand. If the section represented an arch or a vault, it is such as woidd not stand one hour ; but the dome is in itself so perfect as a constnictive expedient, that it is almost as difficult to build a dome that will fall as it is to build a vault that will stand. As it is besides the most beautiful form of roof artistically that has yet been invented, it may be well, before passing from the most extraordinary and difficidt example yet attempted anywhere, to pause and examine a little more closely the theory of the dome.

442 SAHACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Rook IX. lA't US su])pust' tliu cliaj;iaiii (^woodcut Nu. .353) to rciJicseiit a porfoetly flat dome 100 ft. in diameter, and eaoh rim consequently 10ft. wide. Su})posing further that the whole dome weighs 7850 tons, or any other weight, the outer rim will weigh 2H2(j tons, or almost exactly an much as the three inner rims ])ut together ; the next will weigh 2204, the next 15l!8, the next 1142, and the inner only 314; so that a considerable extra thickness might be heaped on it, or on the two inner ones, without their preitonderance at all atfecting the stability of the dome ; but this is the most unfavourable view to take of the case. To understand the case more clearly, let us su])pose the semicircle A a a to represent the section of a hemispherical dome. The first segment of this, though only 10 ft. in width, will be 30 in height, and will weigh 9420 tons; the next, 10 ft. high and 10 wide, will weigh 3140; the third, 10 ft. by 0, will weigh only 1884 ; the fourth Avill weigh !t42 ; and the central portion, as before, 316. 363. Diagram illustrative of Domical Coiistructiuu. Now it is evident that the first portion, a b, being the most perjiendicular, is the one least liable to disturbance or thriist, and, being also two-thirds of the whole weight of the dome, if it is steady and firmly constructed it is a more than sufficient abutment for the remaining third, which is the whole of the rest of the dome. It is evident from an inspection of the figure, or from any section of a dome, how easy it must be to construct the first segment from the s]»riiigiiig ; and if this is very .solidly built and i)laced on an immoveal>le l)asis, the architect may play with the rest ; and he nnist be clumsy indeed if he cannot make it perfectly stable. In the East they did play with their domes, and made them of all sorts of fantastic foiTiis, seeking to please the eye more than to consult the engineering necessities of the case, and it is the larest possible contingency to find a dome that has fallen through faults in the constniction. In Europe architects have been timid and unskilled in dome-building ; but with our present engineering knowledge it would be easy to construct far lai'gcr and more daring domes than even this of 3Iahomet's tomb, without the smallest fear of accident. The external oidinance of tin's Imildingis as beautiful jis that of the interior. At each angle stands an octtigonal tower eight stories high.

CiiAi'. IV. INDIA. 443 simple and bold in its proportions, and (.'rownod by a dome ol"

444 SARACENIC AKCHITECTUKE. Book IX. there is now in India nu Moslem niunaicli with means sufficient to attempt an erection of this kind, and, if such an attempt were made, it probably would be adorned with Italian details in the worst possible taste, and be more an emblem of the utter degradation of the race than a monument capable of conveying to posterity an idea of their greatness or power. i'ALACES. It is true, perhaps, that in India the mf)St characteristic fonn of Moslem art is that fumid in the tombs jvist described ; but at the same time it must be admitted that Saracenic architecture in general is most distinctively lepresented by its palaces. It was for the display of luxurious splendour that the taste of the people was best siiited, and it is consequently hi the style displayed in their palaces that they can best lay claim to pre-eminence, if they possessed it anywhere. None of the races who have at any period embraced the religion of Mahomet were capable of such a sustained effort of religious enthusiasm as that which gave rise to the Gothic art. Neither did they ever attain that penuanent durability which gives to the Egyptian monuments such an expression of eternity ; nor did they at any time possess the perception of intellectual beauty which at Athens produced the Parthenon. Their characteristic was more that of elegant and luxurious refinement. Their taste led them to splendour — ^to gorgeous pomp and ceremonial— rather than to those higher feelings which dignify the works of Western nations. Vulgar they never were, for vulgarity is unknown in the East, while a sense of the picturesque seems an inherent quality of the Asiatic mind — (pialities which, combined "svith an almost feminine delicacy of expression, were admirably adapted to pioduce an exquisite style of palatial art ; but one that could never reach either to sublimity, or to the manlier and nobler, though perhaps less refined, styles of ^Vestem Europe. Veiy little now remains of the palaces built by the Pathans in India. The finest, and perhaps the best of these, was that built at Agra by Sher Shah, whose tomb at Sasseram is described above. It certainly belonged to the best age ; and being built to adorn the newly established capital, had probably all the art lavished upon it which that age afforded. Being the first, it had the misfortune to be placed on the highest spot within the walls of the fortress. Hence the present enlightened government of India, fancying this a good site for a barrack, pulled it do^\•n, and replaced it by a more than usually hideous brick erection of their own. This is now a storehouse, and looms in whitewa.shed ugliness over the marble palaces of the M(jguls, a fit standard of comparison of the taste of the two races. Judging from a fragment that remains, and the accounts received on the spot, this palace must have gone far to justify the eulogium that has more than once been passed on the works of these Pathans — that "they built like giants, and finished like goldsmiths:" the stones seem to have been of the most enormous size, and the details of most exquisite finish. It has passed away, however, like many another

Chap. TV. INDIA. 445 noblu building of its class, niitler the rutliless barbarism of our nile. Mos(iiics we have generally spared, and sometimes tombs, because they were unsuitod to our economic purposes, and it woTild not answer to oftcnd the religious feelings of the natives. 15ut when we depo.sod the kings and appropriated their revenues, theie was no one to claim these now useless abodes of splendour. And as it was found cheaper either to ]nill tlieiu down, or use them as residences or arsenals, than to keep tlu'in u]), few, very few, remain for the admiration of posterity. At Maudoo there are some noble remains of the ])alace, designed with the same simple grandeur which characterises the mosque (woodcut No. 342), but built on even a more massive and gigantic scale. At Beejapore the palaces are nearly entire, though of a later age ; and considerable fragments still exist of the old palaces of Jaunpore, Gaur, and the older capitals of the race. Delhi too is full of fragments ; but nothing is so entire as to merit now the name of a palace, or which would enable us to restore their arrangement in anything like completeness. The troubled rei^n of Humayun does not seem to have been favourable to palace-building, at least on a permanent scale, though we learn fi'om Ferishtah that he erected a great palace containing 7 halls of audience, each dedicated to one of the 7 planets ; and that he gave public audience in each of these according to the planet of the day. The building seems to have been splendid ; but it may have been composed of ephemeral materials. Akbar, however, was one of the greatest builders of his race, and left few of his capitals — except perhaps Delhi — without some fit monument of his greatness. His buildings are all verj^ similar to one another in style, but very unlike those either before or after his time. They do not possess the elaborate minuteness of the Hindus, nor the giant strength of the Pathans ; still less do they show the refined elegance of the works executed under Shah Jehan; but they imite all these difterent qualities into one style in a manner that is very remarkable, standing as it were between two ages, and combining the feelings of two religions in a way that is not only very instructive, but produces a style unrivalled by anything of its kind in any part of the world. Akbar's favourite and principal residence was at Futtehpore Sicri, near Agra, where he built the gi'cat mosque mentioned above, and in its immediate proximity erected a palace, or rather a group of palaces, which in their way are more interesting than any other in India. No general design seems to have been followed in their erection ; but pavilion after pavilion was added, and residences either for himself or for his favourite wives. Thfese were built as the taste of the moment dictated, some in the Hindu, some in the Moslem style. The palace has no prctcnsiim to be regarded as one great architectural object; but as a picturesque groiq) of elegant buildings it is unrivalled. All are built of the red sandstone of the hill on which the palace stands ; no marble is used, and no stucco either inside or out, all the ornaments being honestly carved in relief on the stone, and the roofs as well as the floors all of the same material, and characterised by that singular

440 SARACENIC AKCHITECTUKE. Book IX. Jlindii-like aversion tu an arch which ^Ucbar aluue of all the Moslem luonarchs seems to have adopted.' His palace at Agia is merely one pavilion, or rather corps de logis, and cannot therefore be coin])ared with the great palace in size ; but it is singularly elegant in detail, and, having escaped the fate of so many of the palaces of India, time has only softened without destroying the beauty of its features. Internally it encloses a court 71 ft. 2 in. square, one side of which is occupied by a hall (32 ft. 8 in. by 35 ft. 3 in., of almost purely Hindu design, and almost as elaborate and elegant in detail. In the opposite side of the court is a smaller hall. The two remaining sides are occupied by two entrances with porches and halls. Beyond this an open court overlooks the river and the country on the other side of the Jumna. Like all his buildings, this is of red sandstone ornamented in relief, and generally Avithout arches, thus forming a singular contrast to the marble halls of Shah Jehan, which adjoin it. Allahabad was a more favourite residence of this monarch than Agra, perhaps even more than Futtehpore Sicri ; but the English having appropriated the fort, its glories have been nearly obliterated. The most beautiful thing was the jjavilion of the C'halees .Sitoon, or 40 pillars, so called from its having that ninuber on the principal floor, disposed in two concentric octagonal ranges, one internal of 16 ])inars, the other outside of 24. Above this, siipported by the inner colonnade, was an upper range of the same number of pillars crowned by a dome. This building has entirely disapiieared, its materials being wanted to repair the fortifications. The great hall, however, still remains, represented in the annexed woodcut (Jso. 354). It is aii4 Mall in I'alace at Allaliabad. From a drawing by Uauiell. ' JIciw much of this pahice now remains it is impossible to sjiy. When I was there the Government were selling the stones at 10 rupees the hundred maunds — a little less than it would cost to quarry them. I saw one of the noblest bowlees being so destroyed by the ("ompany's servants, and its materials being carted away to build the wretched Barree of a neighbouring Zemindar. 200/. or 300/. might thus be added to a revenue of 22 millions, which, thanks to these Jloguls, we are able to wring from the poorest peasantry in the world.

CiiAP. IV. INDIA. 447 now the arsenal ; a brick wall has been run up between its onter colonnades with windows of English architecture, and its curious jKivilions and other acconi])aniiucuts removed ; and internally, whatever could not be conveniently cut away is carefully covered up with ])laster and whitewash, and hid by stands of arms and deal fittings. iStill its plan can be made out ; a square hall supported by eight rows of colunnis, eight in each row, thus making in all sixty-four, surrounded by a deep verandah of double columns with groups of four at the angles, all surmounted by bracket capitals of the mt)st elegant and richest design, and altogether as fine in st^le and as rich in ornament as anything in India. None of the Emperors of India built less or cared less for building than Akbar's son and successor Jehangir, who has not left in India Proper one single edifice worthy either of his power or the length of his reign. The only works which he left seem to have been at Lahore, where he lies buried with his imperious queen, the celebrated Nooj'jehan. Shah Jehan, however, who succeeded him in 1 028, made ample amends for this neglect, having built more than any of his race except perhaps the great Akbar. It is startling to find how complete a change of style had been eftected in the short interval that had intervened between these two reigns. The truth seems to be that the current of Moslem art had advanced steadily from the beginning. Under Akbar an inteiTuption took place, attributable to the bold originality and peculiarity of taste of that great monarch. On his death the Mahometan style resumed its course, but made little progress under his feeble successor. On the accession of Shah .Jehan it again flourished in all its magnificence. It was this king who built the present city of Delhi, with its great mosques and palaces, the latter being the most perfect and complete exanqile of its style in India, having besides hitherto escaped the spoiling hand of the English, being still inhabited by the fiiineant kings of the Mogul radb. From this cause this ])alace is not so easily accessible to Europeans, and consequently not so well known, as that of Agra. Besides that, it is altogether of a somewhat later age, many of its buildings having been finished, and some added, by Aurungzebe, and tinctured by the decline of ait that became apparent during his reign. The palace at Agra, though smaller and less complete, is perhaps even more interesting, being wholly of the best age. In the centre of it is a great court, 51 K) ft. by 370, surrounded by arcades, and approached at the opposite ends thiough a succession of bcautifid courts opening into one another by gateways of great magnificence. On one side of this court is the great hall of the palace — the Dewannee Khas — 208 ft. by 76, supported by 8 i-anges of arcades of exquisite beauty. It is open on 3 sides, and witli a niche for the throne at the back. Tliis, like the hall at Allahabad, is now an arsenal, and reduced to as near a similarity as possible to those in our dockyards. Behind this are 2 smaller courts, the one containing the Dewannee Aum, or private hall of audience, the other the haieem. The hall in the former is one of the most elegant of Shah Jehan's build

448 SARACENIC AKCIIITECTURE. Book IX. i)i^s, beinij; wlu)lly of white luarble iiiluid "svith pvcciuiis stones, and the design of the whole being in the best style of his reign. The greatest care, however, was lavished on the hareem court, which measures 1 70 ft. by 235. Three sides of tliis arc occupied by the residences of the ladies, not remarkable for size, nor, in their present state, for architectural beauty ; but the fourth, overhanging the river, is occupied by three white marble pavilions of singular elegance, thougli it is not easy now to see them, some English officer having pitched upon the principal one as a residence, and luning in conse(pience covciX'd the polished marble and elegant arabes(iucs of flowers iidaid in precious stones with thick coatings of that whitewash which was indispensable to his idea of comfort and elegant simplicity. As in most Moorish palaces, the baths on one side of this court were the most elegant and elaborately decorated apartments in the palace. The baths have been destroyed, but the walls and roofs still show the elegance with which they were adorned. The palace at Delhi is similar to this, but, being built by one king on a luiiform plan, it is more regular, and on the whole certainly more magnificent. Its principal entrance faces the Chandnee Chouk, a splendid wide street, nearly a mile long, planted with two rows of trees, and with a canal of water flowing down its centre. Entering within the deeply-recessed portal you find yourself beneath the rot)f of a vaulted hall, similar in plan to a Gothic cathedral, many of which it exceeds in dimensions. In the centre it is crossed by another hall at right angles leading to the lateral courts, and at the upper end is the great court of the palace, rather larger than the one above described as existing at Agra. The whole forms perhaps the most noble entrance to a palace now kno%vn to exist anywhere. Opposite to this great entrance is the Dewannee Ainn, or principal hall, a finer and larger one than that at Agra, and not yet turned into an arsenal ; and in the centre of this, directly facing the entrance, is a niche richly ornaii^ented, whei'e on a ])latform 6f marble inlaid with precious stones once stood the famous peacock throne. To the left of this great court is a smaller one, containing the private hall of audience, which is larger and richer than that at Agra, though not so el(>gant. It is round the frieze of this hall that the famous inscription runs, " If there is a heaven on earth, it is this, it is this " — which may be safely rendered into the sober English assertion that no palace now existing in the world possesses an apartment of such singular beauty and elegance' To the left of this again are the gardens, laid out in the fonnal style of the East, and the little golden mosque, an elaborate and beautiful piece of art, but far too small for such a palace, and very inferior to the INIootee Musjid at Agra. On the other side is the hareem court, to which no European is admitted ; but if it bears the same relation to the rest as that at Agra, it must bo the most splendid part of the whole. 'Iho tliiiiiio here is a single block of rock (;r3-8tal of exceeding elegance and beauty.

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(.'IIAI". IV. INDIA. 440 AImu^" tliu river front, ;is ,it Ai;iii. arc a luiiiilicr of niaiblc |>;ivili(iii.s, i;i'iicrally (xitagous, crowned witli gilded (k)nies, some of tlicni of groat Itoautv, but none, as far as can be seen, ec^ual to that between the two inner courts at Agra. Of all Sliali Jehan's buildings that is the most elaborate and the most highly ornamented, though ])erhai)s for this very reason not the most to be admired ; for though it is impossil)le to resist the fascination of so much ornament, all of the best kind and the richest materials, the fonns and arrangements of the parts tht not come up to the beauty of those buildings by which it is immediately surrounded. We have scarcely any remains of Aurungzebe's own works, except, as before observed, a few additions to the palace at Delhi ; but during his reign many splendid palaces were erected, both in the capital and elsewhere. The most extensive and splendid oi these was that built by his aspiring but unfortunate son Dara Shekoh. It, however, was converted into the English residency ; and so completely have plaster, whitewash, and improvements done their work, that it requires some ingenuity to find out that it was not wholly the work of the AngloSaxons. In the town of Delhi many palaces of the age of Aurungzebe have escaped this jji-ofanation, but generally they are either in ruins or used as shops ; and, though splendid, they show too clearly that degradation of style which had then fairly set in, and which is still moie apparent in the modern capitals of Oude, Tlydrabad, and other cities which have risen into importance during the last hundred years, than even here. Even these capitals, however, are not without edifices of a palatial class which from their size and the picturescjueness of their forms deserve attention, and to an eye educated among the plaster glories of the Alhambra would seem objects of no small interest and beauty. Few, however, are built of either marble or squared stone ; most of them are of bi-ick or rubble-stone, and the ornaments in stucco, which, coupled with the inferiority of design, will not admit of their being admired in such immediate proximity with the glories of Agra and Delhi. At Lucknow there is one hall that deserves to be treated as an 355. I'liin ot liiuiinbiua at Niicknuw. I'lom a i>l.in by the Aulhor. Scale loo ft. to 1 in. 2 ct

450 SARACEfNIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. exception, not uiily from its .size, but iium thu simplicity of its form and general grandeur of design. It is the Imambara or hall of the college. As seen by the plan (woodcut No. 855), the principal apartment is 1 (52 ft. long b^' 53 ft. G in. wide. On the two sides are verandahs respectively 2() ft. fJ in. and 27 ft. 3 in. wide, and at each end an octagonal apartment, 53 ft. in diametei', the whole interior dimensions being thus 2G3 ft. by 145. This immense building is covered with vaults of very simple form and still simpler construction, being of a rul)ble or coarse concrete several feet in thickness, which is laid on a rude moidd or centering of bricks and miul, and allowed to stand a year or two to dry and set. The centering is then removed, and the vault, being in one piece, stands ■svithoiit abutment or thrust, apparently a better and more durable form of roof than our most scientific Gothic vaiilting; certainl}^ far cheaper and f;ir nu)rc easily made, as it is literally cast on a mud-form, which may be moulded into any shajic the fancy of the architect may dictate.

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CjiAi'. V. SI'AIN. -J.M CilAI'TEi; \. S V A 1 N. coNriONr.s. liitnKluet(.iry roiiiarks — Mosque ;it Conlolw — I'ahict; at Zahra (,'lnirciies of Sta. Maria and Cliristo de la Luz at Toledo — Giralda at Seville — Palace of the Alcazar — The. Alhambra - - Sicily . CHi;0. NO LOGICAL MEMOliAXDA. DATKS. Moors invade Spain a.d. 711 AI>1 1'l Kahinan euimiieiices mosque atCovdobii 78G Kl Jhuisiiur i'iil;irp's mosfiuo at Oovdiiba . 876 Calipli IlaktH'iii R'buikls sanctuary at Cordoba 965 DArKS. Alcazar and (iiralda at Seville (al)out) A.i).120O Mohanimeil ben Alhaniar commences Alhambra r24.s Abon abil Allah, builder of Court of f.ions, begins to reign i:{ii5 Christian conquest of Ciranada .... 1.1!)2 The next form of Saracenic art that now remains to be illustralctl is that deveU)ped in Spain during the 8 centuries in which the Muoi's possessed or hekl a footing in that country, which they ennobled liy their chivalry and adorned by their enlightened cultivation of the arts and sciences. As a style it is inferior to those we have been examining — never having reached the purity oi' form and elegance of detail attained in Egypt, nor that perfection in colouring A\ln\'l) i;haracterises the style of Persia, while it is certainly inferior both in elegance and richness to that of India. Still it is to us perhai)s the most interesting of the whole, not only because of its proximity to our own shores, and our consequent greater familiarity with it, but l)ecause history, poetry, and painting have all combined to heighten its merits and fix its forms on our minds. Few are unaequainted with the brilliant daring of a handful of adventTirers who in the 8th century subjugated Spain and nearly conquered Europe, and fewer still have listened without emotion to the sad tale of their expulsion. Much of the poetry and romance of the middle ages owes its existence to the struggles between the Christian and the Paynim knights ; and in modem times travellers, painters, and architects have all lingered and expatiated on the beauties of the Alhambra, or dwelt in extasies on the mysterious niagiiificence of the mosque at Coidoba. Indeed no gi'cater compliment coidd be jiaid to this style than that conveyed by the fact that, while not one work of any importance has been devoted to the Christian antiquities of Spain, even England has produced two such splendid illustiations of the .\lhambra as those of 2 G 2

452 SAHACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. Murphy and Owen Jones — works far more magnificent than any devoted to our own national arts. In France, too, Girault dc Praugcy, Ijc Nonnand, (Miapny, and others have devoted themselves to the task; and even in Spain the Antigiiedades Arabes en . Espana is the best production of the class. So that we really are familiar with what these strangers did ; while the cathedrals f)f Seville, Toledo, Burgos, and lioon are unmeasured and undrawn ; and travellers hurrying to the Alhambra scarce condescend to alight from the diligence to cast a passing glance at their beauties. This is indeed hardly fair ; still it must be confessed it is impossible t(j come in contact with the brilliant productions of the fei-vid imagination of a Southern people without being captivated with their beauty, and there is a fascination in that exuberance of ornament and brilliancy of colour which it is impossible to resist when these are used with the daring which characteiises their emi)loyment here. It is also true that these Moorish architects avoid the vidgarity which would incvital)ly result from such exuberance in the hands of Northern artists — a defect which the more delicately organised Asiatic as invariably escaped. Cordoba. As far as the history of architecture is concerned, by far the most interesting building in Spain is the mosque of Cordoba ; it was the fii'st important building commenced by the Moors, and was enlarged and ornamented by successive rulers, so that it contains specimens of all the styles current in Spain from the earliest times till the buikling of the Alhambra, which was in the latest age of Moorish art. This celebrated mosque was commenced by Caliph Abd el Eahman in the year 780, and completed by his son Haschem, who died 796. The part built by them was the 1 1 western aisles, which then formed an edifice complete in itself, not unlike the Aksah at Jenisalem (except in the number of aisles), which the Caliph is said to have been anxious to suqiass. It is by no means clear whether it had originally a court in front, but it is certain that the present court owes its existence to another Caliph of the same name in the year 957. As, however, the Christian basilicas of this age had almost always courts in front, it is more than probable that this mosque had one also ; for the Mahometan mos(|ues erected in countries previously Christian boiTOW much of their arrangement from these edifices. The 8 eastern aisles were added by El Mansour (976 — 1001), thus completing the mosque to a parallelogram of 420 ft. by 375 ; ' it covers therefore 157,500 square feet, being a larger superficies than that covered by any Christian church except St. Peter's at Home. It is, however, sadly deficient in height, being only about 30 ft. high to ' Notwithstimling the aumbor of plans pub- the scale of his plans shows o7()X4(i5. Le lished of this cilificc, it is extremely ditTicult Noiinand's two plans ilitfer consi(leral)ly from to ascertain its c.\aot dinieiisions. Murphy one another. The above is about the mean, in his text makes them 020x440, whereas

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niiAi'. V SPAIN: 4.53 flic roufs, iind also waiit.s subordination of parts, all the aisles being nearly of the same width, about 22 ft., except the central one of the original II, which is ;> ft. wider; the 33 transverse aisles are all siinilar in breadth ; so that altogether it is as deficient in design as the hall of a thousand columns of a Hindu temple, and produces pretty nearly the same effect. So completely has the building been altered by various repairs and the intrusion of a modern cathedral into its centre, that it is diffi^^Ci^^^hC^(^{^Ci{^ A A A A n n \) -A ^ 356. Jlosquc at Cordoba. From a plan by G. Le >!orman(i. Scale 100 ft. to 1 iu.

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4;)4 SAllACKNIC MfCHITECTUHE. I'.ooK IX. f cult tu niiai'i-stand many of the ori,obtained als(j at this time the assistance of workmen from Byzantium, with which court the Caliphs of Spain wen; closely allied ; and with their own exquisite taste they made the facade and niches of this part of the building the most elaborate and beautiful specimens of the arl in Spain, and which, but for the smallness of the scale and confined nature of the design, might rival anything else found anywdiere. 'J1ie tlowing and graceful forjus of the design here exhibited arc infinitely preferable to tlie interlacing straight lines of the Alhambra. ■% I 1 357. Interior of Sanctuary at Coriloliu. Kroni a draw ins: by Girauit ile Praiigt-y.

ClIAl'. V. SPAIN. 4r).') and the materials, which ai'e in this place Avhite and eulouied niarV)les and true mosaic work, are very much to be preferred to the painted ])laster of the other and more celebrated edifice. The third Moorish art is age of repreSSS. S;reeii of the Chapel of Villa Viciosa, Mosque of Corrtolu. sented in this biiilding by the chapel of Villa Viciosa, built apparently about the 3'ear 1200. It is evidently one of those raised ])latforms' so common in Indian, and indeed in all ro}al mosques, where the king in his grandeiu' could pray uncontaminatcd by mixing \Aath the vulgar crowd. Though a good deal altered and deranged by being converted into a (Christian chapel, it still shows, in the age of its greatest purity, the germ of that style which afterwards was elaborated at Granada, and is generally considered as the type of the style in this country. Before leaving this mosque it may be as well to remark that nowhere in any of these styles does the pointed arch appear, or only so timidly as to be quite the exception, not the rule. At an age when its emplojnnent was universal in the East, it is singtilar to observe how completely the Saracenic architects followed the traditions of the country in which they found themselves. At Cordoba they never threw oft" the influence of the Eoman arch, though farther north the pointed arch is by no means uncommon. Contemporary -with the rebuilding of the sanctuary of the mosque Avas the erection of the great palace in the city of Zahra near CorcL )ba, which, if we may trust the accounts that have been handed down to us, was by far the most wonderful work of the Moors in Spain. This indeed might be expected, for, as has been before remarked, the palaces were the principal buildings of this people, and this being of the very best age might naturally be expected to excel any other edifice of theii's. Not one stone now remains to mark even the spot where it stood. Its destruction coinmenced shortly after its completion in the troubles of the 11th century, even before the city fell into the hands of the Christians, and we depend therefore wholly on the Arabian historians from whom Conde and Murphy compiled their accounts ; but as they, with Maccary, describe the mosque in the same page with the palace, and do not exaggerate nor say one word too much in praise of

456 SARACENIC AHCHITECTUKE. Book IX. the fonuer, we cannot refuse credence to their description of the latter. According to these authors the enclosing wall of the palace was 4000 ft. in length E. and W., and 2200 ft. N. and S. The greater part of this space Avas occupied by gardens, but these, with their marble fountains, kiosks, and ornaments of various kinds, nnist have surpassed in beauty, and i)erhaps even in cost, the more strictly architectural part of the building. 4;JO0 coliunns of the most precious marbles supjtorted the i-oofs of the halls : 1013 of these were brought from Africa, 19 from Koine, 140 were presented by the Emperor of t'onstantin()i)le to Abd el liahman, the princely founder of this sumptuous edifice. All the halls were paved with marbles in a thousand varied patterns. The walls too were of the same precious material, and ornamented with fi-iezes of the most brilliant colours, 'i'ho roofs, constructed of cedar, were ornamented with gilding on an azure ground, with damasked work and interlacing designs. All, in short, that the unbounded wealth of the caliphs at that period could command was lavished on this favourite retreat, and all that the art of Constantinople and Bagdad could contribute to aid the taste and power of execution of the Spanish Aral)s Avas enlisted to make 'it the most perfect woik of its age. Did tills ]>alace of Zahra now remain t

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(^IIAI-. V. SPAIN. 4.^7 3f>9. Stii. Maria la BUinca. From Villa Amil. Another vciy interesting specimen of a Moorish mosque in Spain is that at Toledo, now known as the church of C'liristo de \a Luz. It is a small square building with 4 stout short pillars on the floor, dividing it into 9 equal compartments, the central one of which is carried \^^ higher than the others, and teiniinated by a sort of dome, if dome it can be called, for the Spanisli architects, woiking almost wholly from Koman models, never adopted the Byzantine dome to any extent, except perhaps as the roofs of baths. In their mos(pies and palaces it is only used as an ornamental detail, and never constructed either of st(me or brick-work, but merely a carpentry framingcovered with stucco or mastic. The Spanish st^le s1k)ws in this a most essential diii'erence from the Eastern forms, where the domes are so s]dendid and durably constructed, and anIkic they constitute the actual roofs of the Iniildings. Indeed vaulting does not seem under any circumstances to hav

45H SAKACENIC AUCHITECTUKE. Hook IX. it cortiiiuly is, and for fanciful and gorgeous decorations perliaps j)referable to more durable, but less manageable materials. The aii resulting from such materials is, it is true, more e})hemeral, and must take a lower grade than that built up of materials that should last for ever; but sui'h was not the aim of the gay and brilliant INIoors, and we must judge them by their own standard, and by their success in attaining the object they aimed at. In San Christo the walls are sufficiently solid and })lain, and on the whole the foiius and decorations are jiulieiously and skilfully applied to attain the requisite height without raising the cobnuns or giving any appearance of forced contrivances for that piuiiose. In this respect it shows a considerable advance on the design of the older part of the great mosque at Cordoba, being probably at least a century more modern ; but it does not show that completeness which the art attained in the 10th century, when the sanctuar}at Cordoba was built. These four buildings mai-k four very distinct stages in the history of the art — the early mosque at Cordoba being the first, the San Christo de la Luz the second ; the third and most perfect is well represented by all the bxiilding at the southern end of the mosque at Cordoba ; the fourth by Sta. Maria la Blanca, where all trace of Roman and Byzantine ai-t lias wholly disa])]iearcd : a fifth stage is represented by another synagogue at Toledo called El Transitu. This last is so essentially merely a gorgeously oi-uamented room that it hardly deserves to bo classed among monumental buildings, besides which this stage is so well illusti-ated in the palaces of Seville and Granada that it is not necessary to dwell on minor examples. Had the great mosques of Seville, Toledo, or Granada been spared to us, it would perhaps have been easier and better to restrict our illustrations to sacred edifices alone ; but they — at least certainly the two first named — have wholly disappeared to make way for the splendid cathedrals which stand where they once stood, and which have obliterated nearly every trace of their previous existence. In the northem cities the national pride and stern bigotry of the Spaniards have long ago eft'aced all traces of this religion. 360. Church of St. Christo de la Luz, Toledo, drawing by Girault do Prangey. I'ruui a

ClIAl'. \' SPAIN. 459 (!ii;ami.\. Skvii,i,k. None of the mosques we have l)een descril)iii

-460 SARACENIC ARCIIITECTUKE. Rook TX. faimms victory of Alarcos, gained in the year 1195, in wliich year the building of the tower was eommcnccd. As sncli it is superior to most of those erected in Europe in the middle ages, but far inferior, except in size, to the Kootub Minar, and many others still found in varions parts of Asia. Alcazar at Seville. The Alcazar at Seville was an older palace, and perhaps also at one time a more magnificent one, than the Alliandna itself. Hence it would be a most interesting examjde of the .Mahometan style, were it not that it has been much dilapidated in subsequent ages, and its character destroyed by alteratiims and so-called improvements after it fell into the hands of the Christians. It is more than probable that the best parts of it belong to the same age as the Giralda — the end of tlie 12th and beginning of the 13th century- -and that it continued to receive additions till the city was taken by the Christians, a.d, 1248. A careful examination of the building by some one intimate with all the peculiarities of the style might distinguish the ancient parts from the Christian additions, especially those perpeti-ated by Don Pedio the Cruel (1353 to 13fi4), who in an inscription on the walls claims the merit of having rebuilt it. Thus the history of this palace is not of much importance, as it is not so much older than the Alhambra as to mark another style, nor so complete as to enable us to judge of the eftect of the art as pei-fecily as we can in that celebrated i)alace. Alhambra. It was after his expulsion from Seville (1248) that Mahomed ben Alhamar know tliat It existed, and tradition points to this side as its locality, though it certainly wa.s not the ai)artinent at that angle which now goes by tliat nanio. It must, like all Spanish mosques, have fjiced the .soutli, and was most jnobably destroyed by the first Christian con

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(jllAl'. V. Sl'AIN. 4(i 1 qiK^rors of (rninuda. Iiulrt'd it is by no means ceitiiin that tlie Christian palac'c abovo muutioncil, which stands strangely nnsymmetrieally with the other buildings, does not follow the lines of the old mosque. Tliis coidd be in great measure determined if we could rely upon the bearings of the ditferent courts and buildings as given in the compasses attached to any of the plans hithcilo ])ulilis]icd. The principal entrance to the Alhambra seems always to have been at the southern end of the court of the Alberea. This part does seem to have been altered or pulled down to make w-ay for the palace of ( 'harles V. The court was originally called, apparently from the pool of water which always occupied it« centre, K\ liirket. It is ioS ft. long by 74 wide, the longer sides being singulaily, and in such a place migracefully, [>lain. The end to the south terminates

402 SARACENIC AUCHITECTUKE. Book IX. in a double arcade uf very beaxitiful design ; and to the north with a similar one, bnt only one stoiy in height, crowned by the tower enclosing the great hall of the ambassadors (c), which is the great object to wliicli this com-t extends. This is a hall 35 ft. square, and about GO in height, roofed by a polygonal dome of great beauty of design, and covered, like the walls, with arabesque patterns of the greatest beauty. One of its most chaniiing peculiarities, however, is the deeply-recessed windows, looking down on the city, and beyond that connuanding a view of the delicious Vega and the mountains that bound it. It is one of the mtist beautiful scenes in the world, of which the architect availed himself with the eye of a true artist, who knew how to combine nature with art to make a pcifect whole. The other court, called that of the Lions (a a), from the beautiftil fountain supported by 1 2 conventional-looking animals so called, is smaller (115 ft. by 66 from wall to Avail), but far more beautiful and elaborate than the other ; indeed, with the apartments that suiround it, this is the gem of Ar{),bian art in Spain — its most beautiful and most peiiect example. It has, however, two defects which take it entirely out of the range of monumental art : the first is its size, which is barely that of a modern parish church, and smaller than many ballrooms ; the second is its materials, which is only wood covered with stucco. In this respect the Alhambra forms a perfect contrast to such a building as the Hall at Kaniac, or any of the greater monumental edifices of the ancient w.uld, and, judged by the same standard, would be foinid lamentably deficient. But in fact there is no comparison apidicable between objects so totally different. Each is a true representative of the feeling and character of the people by which it was raised. The Saracenic plaster hall would be totally out of place and contemptible beside the gi'cat temple-palace of Thebes. No less would the granite works of Egy[)t be considered monuments of ill-diiected labour if placed in the palaces of the gay and luxurious Arab fatalist, to whom the present was everj^thing, and with whom the enjoyment of the passing hour w^as all in all. The shafts of the pillars that surroiind the ( 'ourt of Lions are far from being graceful in themselves, being more like the east-iron supports of our shops than anything else. Their ca])itals, however, are very gi*acefully moulded, and of a form admiral)ly adapted for the su])])ort of the superstructure they were destined to bear, and the pillars themselves are so gracefully grouped, alternately single and coupled, and their alignment is so completely broken by the projecting portico at each end, that they cease to be prominent objects in themselves, and become mere accessory details. The arcades which they support are moulded in stucco with a richness and beauty of ornament that is unrivalled. There is in this no oft'ence to good ta^te : indeed work executed in ]daster ought to be richly decorated, otherwise it is an unsuccessful attempt to imitate the simplicity and power that belongs to more durable and more solid materials. It should tlienfore always be covered with ornaments, and never was so elaborated witli more taste and consistence than is found here.

Cii.U'. V. SPAIN. WA At tlio u])per tud of this com-t is an oblcing liall, called that of Judgment (i>), and on either side two smaller rooms, that of the Abencerragcs (e) on the sc^uth, and that called "of the Two Sisters" (f) o})posite, the latter being the most varied and elegant apartment of the whole }ialaec. The walls of all these are ornamented with geometric and flowing patterns of very great beauty and richness, and applied with unexceptionable taste for such a decoration ; but it is on the roofs and larger arcades that the fatal facility of plaster becomes more apparent. Instead of the simple cui-ves of the dome, the roofs are made up of honeycombed or stalactite patterns, which look more lilce natural rock-work than the f(jrms of an art, which should be ahvays more or less formal and comprehensible at a glance, at least in their greater lines and divisions. There is perhaps no instance where a Saracenic ai-chitect has so nearly approached the limits of good taste as here, and it requires all the countervailing elements of situation and comparison with other objects to redeem it from the charge of having exceeded them. Behind the Hall of the Two Sisters, and on a lower level, are situated the baths (g) of the palace — beautiful in some respects, and appropriately adorned, but scarcely worthy, I cannot help thinking, of such a palace as this. Besides the edifices mentioned above, there is scarcely a town in Spain that once was occupied by the Moors that does not still retain some traces of the art of this people. These traces, however, are generally found in the remains of baths, which from their nature were more solidly built than their other edifices, and generally were vaulted with bricks — frequently with octagonal domes supported on 12 pillars, as those in the East. These in consequence have survived, while their frailer palaces have yielded to the influence of time, and their mosques have disappeared before the ruthless bigotry of their successors. None of these seem to be of sufficient importance to require notice. We miss entirely in Spain the tombs which in the last chapter formed so important a feature. This total absence of monuments of this class is a certain indication that there was no mixture of Tartar blood in the veins of the Moors who conquered and held Spain. This same peculiarity imparts to the whole style of Saracenic art in Spain its distinctive character. But for this the style woidd have been more solid and monumental. Domes woukl have been moi'c in favour, and, in short, the Spanish Moors would have left behind them remains more nearly coiTesponding to those of the other IMahometan countries which have already been noticed.' ' Nothing need be said here of La Cuba sion to mention in a future part of the work ; and La Ziza, and otlier buildings in Sicily, and I am not aware of any building now exwliieh. though usually ascribed to the Moors, tant there which can be safely ascribed to the h:ivi' no*' been ascertained to have been built time when the island was held by the JIosliy the Xormans after their conc|uest of the lenis, and which was then erected by them foiisland in the nth century. They are Moorii-h their own iiurposes. Till such is ascertained in style, it is true, and were probably erected Sicily of course does not come within the by Moorish artists, but so weie many churches part of our subject which we are now conand chapels in Spain which we shall have occa- sidering.

4()4 SAltACENIC ARUIIITECTURE. liooK IX. CHAPTER VI. T U E K E Y. CONTENTS. l'i'ciili;n-itie!< of wtyle — Mos(iue uf Soliiuan — Mosque of Achiiiet — Other mosques. CHRONOLOGICAL MKMORANDA. i>ATi;s. I'uikisb coiKniest of CoiisUiiitinDple . . a.u. 1453 Bajazet begins to reign 1481 l)ATKS. Solinian llie Magnificent a.d. isau Aclimet I6(i;i At the veiy time when the INIoors were being expelled from Spain, and the arts which they had introduced into Europe, and the sciences which they had ciiltivated, were perishino- under the intolerant bigotry of those wlio dispossessed them of their fair realm, a new and noblei" province was by the conquest of Constantinople being added to those already occupied by the followers of Mahomet. Thus what was lost in the West was more than compensated by the gain in the East ; and at an tiarlier age, or by anotlier pt'ople, the gain to the cause of the IMahometans might have been incalculably great. It was, however, at a time when Chiistian Europe was awakening from the long slumber of the dark ages, and was sufficiently organised to resist the encroachment of a foreign invader. It is more to the ])urpose of our present subject to observe that at that period the art of Christian Eui-ope was past its zenith. Its decay had been very rapid, and was felt even in the remote corner of Europe which the Turks had seized. Hence the materials which they had to work upon in producing their new style were of a very debased di'scri]»tion. Even without this, it is by no means c}ear that the Turks would ever have done much good in the way of art. Of all the people who embraced the faith of Jslani, they ceiiainly were, and are, the most stolid and least retined, and the least cai)able consequently of elaborating such an art as we find in all other countries subject to this faith. Had Constantinople fallen at an earlier age into the hands of the Arabs or Persians, the models of architecture and the treasures of ail it contained would have been turned to far better account th^ they have been ; but even as it is, the Turks have erected mosques and liiiildings well worthy of far more attention than they have hitherto received. One of the most remarkable eireiunstances eouneeted with their

CiiAP. VI. TURKEY. 465 stylo is, that wo find horo oxa(!tly the same phenomena in the IGth century that wo remarked in the 7th and Htli. At hoth these eras the Mahometans adopted and snited to their purposes the styles of the countries in which they located themselves. This was not by any moans a necessity imposed npon the Turks by the absence of any Saraconic stylo which they might have imitated. In that very part of the world such a style, complete in all its parts, and liaving ac([nired a pej-fect individuality of expression, had existed for six or seven centuries, and the very Turks themselves had for at least two centuries in Asia ]\linor been building mosques with light piers and pointed arches sup})(>rting airy domes with coloured walls and gilded roofs. All this they forgot and abandoned the moment they established themselves in Europe. If a pointed arch is there found, it is an accident ; colour is rarely used, externally at least ; the plan and form of their mos([nes are entirely new to them ; and a new style springs up, differing in almost every important characteristic from anything ever practised by a Mahometan people before. They do not even seem to have employed the Greek architects of that day. Had thoy done so, their mosques would have had the tall cupolas and light arcades of the Theotocos and more modem Greek churches ; but it was not this tliat they copied ; they went direct to Sta. Sophia, the gieatest and most important model of the stylo, though one which the Greeks themselves had long ceased to imitate, and all their subsequent buildings are copies, more or less exact, of the great creation of .Instinian. liaving no drawings on which dependence can be placed, it is difficult to say what the mosque of Mahomet II. is, though, as the earliest, it is the most interesting of its class. That of Soliman, 1550-1655, is avowedly a cop3" of Sta. Sophia, not only in plan and fomi, but even in size, though it sui-jiasses the original both in details and construction. When Achmet built his great mosque in IGIO, the stylo had acqiurcd a slight degree of independence. The idea of St. Sophia was still there ; but modified both in form and detail, so that it was becoming a consistent example of an independent stylo. After another century of progress we should have lost the type of the old Justinian chui-ch, as completely in the mosques of Constantinople as in the Taje at Agra, and jiorhaps for as noble a style ; but unfortunately the Levant, and especially this great capital, always swarms with Frankish renegades, especially Italians, many of whom, from the superior constructive skill of Western Europe, have been employed as engineers and master builders, and in this capacity have not failed to introdTico their favourite Kenaissanco. Roman pillars reappeared shortly after the time of Achmet, Avith Italian pilasters, and balusters, and consoles ; so that before Osman biiilt his mosque, about a century later, the style had received its death-blow. It is veiy much to be regretted that we have neither any verbal account of the mosques of Constantinople, n(»r any illustrations which can be depended upon. The best are tliosc pid>lished by Grelot, as long ago as 1080 ; but like all works of that class in that age, they arc very inq^erfoct : since then we have had nothing but fiippant remarks 2 ir

4C0 SAl^ACENIl' A1K;HITECTU1{K. Book IX. TllC IH'Kt t.r pictnn^sqno skotclies, far mure likc^ly t"> mislead than to instruct ; ami, indeed, it still remains for some traveller to visit ('onslantino|ile, with sufficient taste to discriminate what is good from what is bad, with sufficient knowledge of architecture to describe intelligibly what he sees, and, above all, with sufficient love of truth to induce him to ascei-tain measurements and facts, and to record theui honestly. The earliest of the Tuikish mosques is that of Mahomet II., or of the Conqueror, as it is called (1465-69). Its dimensions seem small, probably about 100 ft. by 150; and I am not aware that it is distinguished by any architectural peculiarity, though as the first it would form an interesting commencoueut to the series, if it were known and could be estimated. ct in the series is that of Soliman the Magnificent (153055), which is probably the finest in many resjiects of those built by the Tuiks in C'onstantimjple. As will be seen from the annexed plan (copied fi'ora Grelot) it is nearly a square — 227 ft. l)y 234, it is said — and, except in the absence of the apse and smaller width of the side aisles, it is nearly an exact copy of Sta. Sophia, in so far at least as its general ordinance is conc^erned. The great dome, which seems to be about 100 ft. in diameter, is supported l)y four gieat piers of masonry, sup])orting four arches. The comers of the square made by these arches are filled up with, peiickntives, on whic-h the dome itself is placed. Against two of these arches are placed two semi-domes, of the same diauu-ter as the great one — which, with the thickness of the pier arches, make up the whole internal length of the mosque. Between the other two arches of the great dome are placed great granite pillars of one block each, said to bo 60 ft. in height, joined by arches, on which rests a wall-space filling up the side arches of the dome ; and in these walls are placed the principal windt)ws that light the centre of the building. There does not scon to be any second gallery, and altogether the arrangement seems to be a considi raWle improvement on that of iSta. Sophia. In front of the mosque is a square court with a fountain in ili< t;^^ 363. Mosque of Soliman From Orclot's CunsUintinoplc. No fiCiile.

ClIAl-. VI. TUIJKKY. 4(57 centicj, of tlie same widtli ns tlic iii(is(|ii(!, tli(m,

408 SAKACRNIC AIJCIIITRCTURE. Book IX. ground, and the domes thcnisclvos arc not so graceful as ihey might be. But the greatest defect is, probably, the one most difficult to remedy, being the extremely scattered mode in which the light is admitted. All these mosques have 2-i windows at the springing of the great dome, and 12 in each of the semi-domes, besides ninnerous small Avindows in the walls and subordinate domes, making altogether a number of small openings, very destructive of repose in the architectural eifect. The court here is similar to that of the last described mosque ; but this one alone, of all those of the 'J'ui-kish empire (except I\Iccca), possesses six minarets, four at the angles of the court, and two at the angles of the building behind. These too seem to bo more than usually graceful in design, and add very much to the beauty of the whole. So far as Ave can judge, all the details of the mosque are better designed and more consistent in themselves than any of those which either came before or were built after its erection. Indeed, it may be fairly said to be the best and most complete specimen of a st^'le found nowhere else, and in no other age than that of its illustrious founder. Scarcely less important than these, though even less known, are the gieat mosque of Bajazet (1481-1512), and that built b}' Soliman the Magnificent, in 1544, in memory of his son Mustapha, whose name it bears, and for whom it sei-ves as a sepulchre. The mosque of Selim II. is also well worthy of attention (1500-1574), though inferior to that of Yalide, the mother of Mahomet IV., to whose pious enthusiasm Constantinople is indebted for one of the most splendid religious foiuidations it possesses, of which her mosque forms a part. The mos(pie of Osman, 1755, has been already albided to as showing the transfonuation which the Turkish style underwent from the introduction of Frankish forms ; and from this time, though many magnificent buildings have been erected, they show more or less the prevalence of that taste wliich has destroyed all originality and architectural beauty throughout Europe. Besides these imperial mosques of the capital, almost eveiy important city of the empire possesses one or more worthy of study in proportion to their age, and many of them really beautiful and gi-aeeful edifices. But with scarcely an exception, these are utterly unknoMni, or at least no sufficient materials have been published to enable us either to classify or describe them with accuracy. The same remarks apply to nearly aU the civil buildings of the Turkish emjiire, with the exception perhaps of the fountains, lliat of the Seraglio has often bet;n drawn, and generally their light and sparkling architecture seems to have attracted more attention than the more nicinumental, but less ornate style of the mosques. In their fountains the Turks seem to have given rein to that playful fancy which characterises the architecture of Cairo or Granada, l)ut which, from some motive not usual in the Ea«t, they seem to have restrained in their religious edifices. In the interior of their dwellings they seem also to have revelled

CiiAr. VI. CONCLUSION. 469 in oxiiborancc of omamcnt, but in a lighter and even more ephemeral style than is ftmnd elsewhere in Saraecnie art, and therefore coming more under the head of decorative than of monumental art. Like their picturesque dresses and arms, this is fast disappearing before the ding}' uniformity of Western utilitarian practices ; and one must travel far indeed to escape the infltience of Paris or of Birmingham. Still there no doubt remain, in almost every province of the empire, specimens a century or two old, which would display all that taste and beauty we so admire in other countries of the East and South. They have hitherto been overlooked, and perhaps, after all, do not desei-vo so much attention as the earlier Christian relics of the same localities. CONCLUSIOX. Wo have now run rapidly, and it must bo confessed somcAvhat imperfectly, tlirough all the varying forms which Mahometan art assumed during the 1000 years in which it flourished. We have seen it spreading itself in a belt across the Old \\'orld, from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Ba}^ of Bengal. We have seen it gathering inspiration and culling beauties from all those styles which preceded it in the countries where the Moslems settled, first employing native artists and adopting native forms, but gradually working up those forms into something new, something more beautiful and more consistent with their wants and purposes, rejecting whatever was incongruous, and extracting the beaTities they required. Thus it was that the architecture of the Mahometans was at first Eoman, Byzantine, Persian, or Indian, according to the country where it is foimd ; but in all these countries we find it elaborated into a perfectly complete and original style, in the later examples of which it is only possible to detect the first elements by tracing it back through its precedingstages to the fountain head. The people who eifected all this can in no instance be called a great people ; nor do their works ever reach true grandeur, nor even affect sublimity. Beauty was their aim ; and gifted, as nearly all the nations of the Moslem world were, with an exquisite sensibility and the keenest perception of the beautiful, they attained to this b}'^ means of a degree of taste and refinement which seem innate in them. The grace and elegance of their architecture has never been surpassed. In the higher qualities of art, this style is certainly inferior to the Egyptian, Grecian, or Gothic style ; but it surpasses them all in endless fertility of invention, as well as in the variety of ornament and detail which lend such a charm to every work they ever produced. In this, and in many other respects, the style is worthy of for more attention than it has hitherto received ; but more perhaps from what it is capable of suggesting, than from what it has actually accomplished. It never has been in the hands of a great ]ieo])le who could impart greatness to everything they did. The Mahometan nations were led by their exuberance of fancy, and impatience of all restraint,

4(18 SA1L\CRXIC ARCHITECTURE. Book IX. Chap. IK oioiiml, and tho dt»iue.s tliuinsclvcs are nut ku graceful as they might he. But the greatest defect is, prohahly, the one most difficult to remedy, being the extremely scattered mode in which the liglit is atlmitted. All these mosques have 24 Avindows at the springing of the gi-cat dome, and 1 2 in each of the senii-d(jmes, besides numerous small windows in the walls and subordinate domes, making altogether a number of small openings, very destnictive of repose in the architectural effect. The court here is similar to that of the last described mosque ; but this one alone, of all those of the Turkish empire (except Mecca), possesses six minarets, four at the angles of the court, and two at the aniiles of the bnilding behind. These too seem to be more than usually graceful in design, and add very much to the beauty of the wIidIo. So far as we can judge, all the details of the mo.sque are better designed and more consistent in themselves than any of those which either came before or were built after its erection. Indeed, it may be fairly said to bo the best and most complete specimen of a style found nowhere else, and in no other age than that of its illustrious founder. Scarcely less important than these, though even less known, are the great mosque of Bajazet (1481-1512), and that built by Sol iman the IMagnificent, in 1 544, in memory of his son ]\Iustapha, whoso name it bears, and for whom it sei-ves as a sepulchre. The mosque of Selim II. is also well worthy of attention (15()(3-1574), though inferior to that of Validt?, the mother of Mahomet IV., to whose pious enthusiasm Constantinople is indebted for one of the most splendid religious foinidations it possesses, of which her mosque forms a part. The mos(pie of Osman, 1755, has been already alluded to as showing the transfonuation which the Turkish style underwent from the introduction of Frankish forms ; and from this time, though many magnificent buildings have been erected, they show moie or less the ])revalence of that taste which has destroyed all originality and architectural beauty throughout Europe. Besides these impeiial mosques of the capital, almost every important city of the empire possesses one or more worthy of study in proportion to their age, and many of them really beautiful and graceful edifices. But with scarcely an excei)tion, these are utterly unknown, or at least no sufficient materials have been published to enable us either to classify or describe them with accuracy. Tho same remarks apply to nearly all the civil buildings of the Turkish empire, with the exception perhaps of the fountains. That of the Seraglio has often been drawn, and generally their light and sparkling architecture seems to have attracted more attention than the more )nonumental, but less ornate style of the mos(pics. In their fountains the Turks seem to have given rein to that playful fancy which characterises tho architecture of Cairo or Granada, but Avhich, fiom some motive not usual in the East, they seem to have restrained in their religious edifices. Ill tlw interior of tluii- dwollings they seem also to have revelled great]

i I --^ ^ A A i -4 ClIAP. VI. CONCLUSION. 469 in exuberance of ornament, bnt in a lighter and even more ephemeral style than is fmincl elsewherc in Saracenic art, and therefore coming more under the head of decorative than of munniuental art. Ijikc tlieir picturcs(|ue dresses and arms, this is fast disappearing Ijcfore the dingy uniformity of Western utilitarian practices ; and one must travel far indeed to escape the influence of Paris or of Birmingham. Still there no duuLt remain, in almust every province of the empire, specimens a century or two old, whieh would display idl that taste and beauty we so admire in other countries of the East and South. They have hitherto been overlooked, and perhaps, after all, do not deserve so much attention as the earlier Christian relics of the same localities. CoJfCLUSIOX. We have now run rapidly, and it must be confessed somewhat imperfectly, through all the varying forms which Mahometan art assumed during the 1000 years in which it flouiished. We have seen it spreading itself in a belt across the Old W orld, from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Bay of Bengal. We have seen it gathering inspiration and culling beauties from all those styles which preceded it in the countries where the Moslems settled, first employing native artists and adopting native forms, but gradually working up those foiTQS into something new, something more beautiful and more consistent with their wants and purposes, rejecting whatever was incongruous, and extracting the beauties they required. Thus it was that the architecture of the IMahometans Avas at first Roman, Byzantine, Persian, or Indian, according to the country where it is found ; but in all these countiies we find it elaborated into a perfectly comidete and original style, in the later examples of which it is only possible to detect the first elements by tracing it back through its precedingstages to the fountain head. The people who effected all this can in no instance be called a great people ; nor do their works ever reach tme grandeur, nor even affect sublimity. Beauty was their aim ; and gifted, as nearly all the nations of the Moslem world were, with an exquisite sensibility and the keenest perception of the beautiful, they attained to this by means of a degree of taste and refinement which seem innate in them. The grace and elegance of their architecture has never been surpassed. In the higher qualities of art, this style is certainly inferior to the Egyptian, Grecian, or Gothic style ; but it surpasses them all in endless fertility of invention, as well as in the variety of ornament and detail which lend such a charm to every work they ever produced. In this, and in many other respects, the style is worthy of far moie attention than it has hitherto received ; but more perhaps from what it is capable of suggesting, than from what it has actually accomplished. It never has been in the hands of a great people who could impart gTcatness to cveiything they did. The Mahometan nations were led by their exidjorance of fancy, and impatience of all restraint, 4 4 4^ -^ i % ■ . ' * , ^ * ^:.T ^ -'1 1 '' ^ ».> *

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470 SAHACEXIC ARCHITECTURE. Hook IX. to tiy uverv form, to attempt to lix every tloatiiiy; idea, ami to take advantage of every suggestion either of nature or of art. Uenee that hoimdk'ss nniltii»lieity of detail whieh Saracenic architecture presents, and the innumeralde hints it affords for those who Iniow tliat art is not contined to one or t\yo fonns, and is not to he confined hy tigiu'es or l»y rides, hut is everywhere and in evervtliing for ihosc who seek it lionestlv and for its own sake.

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Albemarlr Stbeet, London*. February, 1856. ME. MUREAY'S GENERAL LIST OF WORKS. ABBOTT'S (Rev. J.) Philip Musgrave ; or, ]\Iemoirs of a Church of England Missionary in the North American Colonies. Post 8vo. 2s. &d. ABERCROMBIE'S {John, M.D.) Enquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth, Fourteenth Kdition. Fcap. Svo. 6«. 6

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PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 21 KUGLER'S (Dr. Franz) Handbook to the History of Tainting (the Italian Schools). Translated from tlio German. Edited, with Notes, by Sm Charles Eastlake. Third Edition. With Woodcuts fi-om the Old Masters. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 30i-. (the German, Dutch, Spanish, and French Schools). Partly Translated from the Gorman. Edited, with Notes, by Sir Edmund IIkad, Bart. AVith Woodcuts from the Old Masters. 2 Vols. Post Svo. 2is. LABARTE'S (M. Jules) Handbook of the Arts of the Middle Ages and Kenaissance. With 200 Woodcuts. Svo. 18s. LABORDE'S (Leon De) Journey tlirough Arabia Petrgea, to Mount Sinai, and the Excavated City of Petraia, — the Edom of the Prophecies. Second Edition. With Plates. Svo. ISs. LAMBERT'S (Miss) Church Needlework. With Practical Remarks on its Preparation and Arrangement. Plates. Post Svo. 9s. 6d. My Knitting Book. Woodcuts. Two Parts. 16mo. 35. My Crochet Sampler. Woodcuts. Two Parts. 16mo. 4s. Hints on Decorative Needlework. 16mo. Is. Qd. LANE'S (E. W.) Arabian Nights. Translated, with Explanatory Notes. With Woodcuts. Koyal Svo. 21s. LATIN GRAMMAR (King Edward the YIth's.) Por the Use of Schools. Tenth Edition. 12mo. 3f . 6d. First Book (Kino Edward VL) ; or, the Accidence, Syntax, and Prosody, with English Translation for Junior Classes Second Edition. 12mo. 2s. LAYARD'S (A. H.) Nineveh and its Remains. Being a Narrative of Researches and Discoveries amidst the Ruins of Assyria. With an Account of the Chaldean Christians of Kurdistan ; the Yezedis, or Devil-worshippers ; and an Enquiry into the Manners and Arts of the Ancient Assyrians. Sixth Edition. Plates and Woodcuts. 2 Vols. Svo. 36s. Nineveh and Babylon ; being the Result of a Second Expedition to Assyria. Fourteenth Thousand. Plates. Svo. 21s. Or Fine Paper, 2 Vols. Svo. 30s. Popular Account of Nineveh. lUli Edition. With Woodcuts. Post Svo. 5s. Monuments of Nineveh. First and Second Series. Illustrated by One Hundred and Seventy Engravings. 2 Vols. Imperial Folio, 101. 10s. each. LEAKE'S (CoL. W. Martin) Topography of Athens, with Remarks on its Antiquities; to which is added, the Demi of Attica. Second Edition. Plates. 2 Vols. Svo. 30s. Travels in Northern Greece. Maps. 4 Yols. Svo. 605. — Greece at the End of Twenty-three Years' Protection. Svo. 6rf. — Peloponnesiaca : A Supplement to Travels in the Morea. Svo. 15s. — Thoughts on the Degradation of Science in England. Svo. 3s. Gd.

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